ISF 
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B  4  303  744 


BULLETIN  No.  1.— NEW  SERIES.    (THIRD  EDITION.) 

U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

DIVISION  OF  ENTOMOLOGY. 


THE  HONEY  BEE 


A  MAISTUAL  OF 


INSTRUCTION   IN  APICULTURE. 


BY 


FRANK    BKNTON,   M.  S., 

ASSISTANT  ENTOMOLOGIST. 


WASHINGTON:- 

GOVERNMENT   PRINTING    OFFICE. 
1899. 


BULLETIN  No.  1.— NEW  SERIES.    (THIRD  EDITION.) 

U.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

DIVISION  OF  ENTOMOLOGY. 


THE  HONEY  BEE: 


A  MANUAL  OF 


INSTRUCTION   IN   APICULTURE 


BY 


FRANK    BKNTON,    M 

ASSISTANT  ENTOMOLOGIST. 


WASHINGTON:- 

GOVERNMENT    PRINTING   OFFICE. 
1899. 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL. 


TJ.  S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE, 

DIVISION  OF  ENTOMOLOGY, 
Washington,  D.  (7.,  May  27,  1899. 

SIR  :  I  have  the  honor  to  transmit  herewith  for  republication  a  manual 
entitled,  Tm-  Honey  Bee:  A  Manual  of  Instruction  in  Apiculture,  by 
Mr.  Frank  Benton,  who  has  been  in  charge  of  the  apiarian  work  of  this 
Division  for  several  years.  The  constant  demand  for  information  con- 
cerning bee  culture  for  a  long  time  indicated  a  need  for  such  a  public 
manual,  and  the  work  was  begun  and  nearly  completed  under  the  direc- 
tion of  my  predecessor,  Dr.  C.  V.  Riley.  The  manuscript  was  sub- 
mitted September  20,  1895,  and  the  edition  of  1,000  copies  was  soon 
exhausted.  In  April,  1896,  Congress  ordered  a  reprint  of  20,000  copies, 
in  which  some  corrections  and  additions  were  made  by  the  author.  lie 
has  also  taken  advantage  of  the  reprint  of  another  (the  third)  edition 
to  make  some  slight  additional  changes. 

The  apiarian  industry  in  the  United  States  is  practically  a  develop- 
ment of  the  last  forty  years,  although  isolated  individuals  were  engaged 
in  this  work  long  prior  to  that  time.    The  importance  of  the  industry 
at  the  present  day  is  not  generally  realized,  and  the  following  figures 
will  probably  be  surprising  to  many  well-informed  individuals: 
Apiarian  societies  in  the  United  States  .................................  110 

Apiarian  journals  ...................................................... 

Steam  factories  for  the  manufacture  of  beehives  and  apiarian  implements.  15 

Honey  produced  in  the  United  States  in  1869  (according  to  United  States 

Census  Report)  .................  .  ...........................  pounds  .  .  14,  702,  815 

Honey  produced  in  the  United  States  in  1889  (according  to  United  States 

Census  Report)  .............................................  pounds  .  .  63,  894,  186 

Persons  engaged  in  the  culture  of  bees  (estimated)  .....................        300,  000 

Honey  and  wax  produced,  at  wholesale  rates  (Eleventh  Census)  .........  $7,  000,  000 

Mr.  Benton's  estimate  of  the  present  annual  value  of  apiarian  products.  $20,  000,  000 

As  supplementary  to  these  figures  it  may  be  stated  that  in  addition 
to  the  15  steam  power  factories  there  is  a  very  large  number  of  smaller 
factories,  using  mainly  hand  and  horse  power,  which  are  engaged  in  the 
production  of  supplies,  such  as  hives,  smokers,  honey  extractors,  sec- 
tions, comb  foundation,  and  other  apiarian  apparatus.  It  is  estimated 
by  Mr.  Benton  that  the  present  existing  flora  of  the  United  States 
could  undoubtedly  support,  with  the  same  average  profit,  ten  times  the 

3 


4  LETTER    OF   TRANSMITTAL. 

number  of  colonies  of  bees  it  now  supports.  This  branch  of  agri 
cultural  industry  does  not  impoverish  the  soil  in  the  least,  but,  on  the 
contrary,  results  in  better  seed  and  fruit  crops.  The  total  money  gain 
to  the  country  from  the  prosecution  of  this  industry  would  undoubt- 
edly be  placed  at  several  times  the  amount  given  in  the  table  above 
were  we  only  able  to  estimate  in  dollars  and  cents  the  result  of  the 
work  of  bees  in  cross  fertilizing  the  blossoms  of  fruit  crops.  In  sup- 
port of  this  it  is  only  necessary  to  refer  to  the  fact  that  recent  inves- 
tigations by  another  division  of  this  Department  have  shown  that 
certain  varieties  of  pear  are  nearly  or  quite  sterile  unless  bees  bring 
pollen  from  other  distinct  varieties  for  their  complete  cross  fertilization. 
I  respectfully  recommend  the  publication  of  this  manual  as  No.  1  of 
the  new  series  of  bulletins  of  this  Division. 

Respectfully,  L.  O.  HOWARD, 

Entomologist* 
Hon.  JAMES  WILSON, 

Secretary  of  Agriculture. 


PREFACE. 


This  treatise  is  designed  to  make  the  practical  management  of  an 
apiary  plain  to  those  whose  acquaintance  with  the  subject  is  limited, 
and  to  direct  such  as  may  find  in  it  a  pleasant  and  profitable  occu- 
pation to  a  system  of  management  which  maybe  followed  on  an  exten- 
sive scale  with  the  certainty  of  fair  remuneration  for  the  labor  and 
capital  required.  With  this  object  in  view  the  author  has  deemed  it 
best  to  treat  the  natural  history  of  the  bee  but  briefly,  and  also  to  give 
little  space  to  matters  which  are  in  question,  or  to  different  methods  of 
accomplishing  given  results,  or  to  such  as  are  only  adapted  to  a  limited 
portion  of  the  country,  but  rather  to  explain  one  settled  way  widely 
applicable  and  which  will  lead  to  success.  The  methods  advised  here 
are  such  as  the  author  has  found  practical  during  an  extended  expe- 
rience, yet  in  regard  to  numerous  details  many  works — both  foreign  and 
American — have  been  consulted,  none  more  freely  than  Langstroth  on 
the  Honey  Bee,  revised  by  Chas.  Dadant  &  Sou,  and  Bees  and  Bee 
Keeping,  by  Prof.  F.  E.  Cheshire. 

Many  of  the  illustrations  were  specially  prepared  for  this  bulletin. 
Some  have  been  taken  from  publications  of  the  Department  of  Agri- 
culture. These  include  some  of  the  smaller  illustrations  of  honey- 
producing  plants  and  also  Plates  III  to  X,  which  are  from  reports  of 
the  Botanist  of  the  Department.  Plates  II  and  XI,  and  figures  5,  3, 
8,  44,  50,  51,  and  76  are  copied  from  Cheshire;  figs.  C8  and  G9  from 
Simmins.  The  Department  is  also  under  obligations  to  the  A.  I.  Root 
Company,  to  Chas.  Dadant  &  Son,  T.  F.  Biugham,  Hayek  Bros.,  Van 
Allen  &  Williams,  and  Dr.  T.  L.  Tinker,  for  electrotypes. 

FRANK  BENTON. 

WASHINGTON,  D.  0. 

5 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. — Classification  of  the  honey  bee 11 

The  different  species  and  races 11 

Common  East  Indian  honey  bee,  Apis  indica 12 

Tiny  East  Indian  honey  bee,  Apis  florea 13 

Giant  East  Indian  honey  bee,  Apis  dorsata 13 

Common  hive  or  honey  bee,  Apis  meU'tfera 15 

Cyprians 15 

Italians 16 

Carniolaus 17 

German,  common  black  or  brown  bees 18 

CHAPTER  II. — Kinds  of  bees  composing  a  colony — Bee  products  and  descrip- 
tion of  combs — Development  of  brood 19 

Kinds  of  bees  in  a  colony 19 

Bee  products  and  organs  used  in  their  preparation 21 

Nectar  and  honey 22 

Propolis 24 

Bee  poison  and  the  sting 24 

Water 25 

Silk 25 

Wax 25 

Combs 26' 

Development  of  brood 28 

The  worker 29 

The  drone 30 

CHAPTER  III. — Quieting  and  manipulating  bees 31 

CHAPTER  IV. — Establishing  an  apiary  :  Time — Selecting  hives  of  bees — Mov- 
ing bees — Selection  of  site 35 

Selection  of  stocks 35 

Moving  bees 37 

Selection  of  site 38 

CHAPTER  V.— Hives  and  implements 40 

Hives 40 

Implements 47 

Bee  smokers 47 

Veils 48 

Honey  extractors  and  honey  knives 49 

Wax  extractors 50 

Queen  iutroducing-cages 50 

Bee  feeders 

Section  folders 

Bee  escapes 

Foundation  fasteners 

Comb-foundation  machines .....  —  „ 54 

7 


8  CONTENTS, 

Page. 
CHAPTER  VI. — Bee  pasturage..  -•... .... .... ...... ....... ............ ...... .... 

Cultivation  of  honey  plants »0.  =  .....o 59 

Bees  as  cross  fertilizers „.  ..o  =  =  ..  =  oo  =  ....o...o«,o.=  .. 62 

Honey  and  pollen  producing  plants 

CHAPTER  VII. — Spring  manipulation- .  =.=.„„ 69 

Transferring 0  =  =  ., 71 

Queenlessness  in  spring..... • 74 

CHAPTER  VIII. — Securing  surplus  honey  and  wax 75 

Extracted  honey 75 

Comb  honey 79 

Putting  on  sections 81 

Production  of  wax 84 

CHAPTER  IX. — Rearing  and  introducing  queens 87 

Mailing  queens 92 

Introducing  queens 93 

CHAPTER  X. — Increase  of  colonies 95 

Natural  swarming 95 

Clipping  queens 97 

Automatic  hivers 98 

Prevention  of  after-swarming 98 

Artificial  increase 99 

Dividing 100 

Driving  or  brushing 100 

The  nucleus  system 101 

Prevention  of  swarming 101 

Dequeening 102 

Requeening 102 

Space  near  entrances 103 

Laugdou  non-swarming  device 104 

Selection  in  breeding 105 

CHAPTER  XL— Wintering  bees 106 

Outdoor  wintering 109 

Indoor  wintering Ill 

CHAPTER  XII. — Diseases  and  enemies  of  bees 112 

Diarrhea  and  dysentery 112 

Foul  brood 112 

The  wax  moth. 113 

Braula  or  bee  louse 1 15 

Other  enemies 115 

Robber  flies,  dragon  flies,  etc 115 

Ants  and  wasps 115 

Spiders 116 

Toads  and  lixards 116 

Birds 116 

Mammals 116 

Robber  bees 116 

Laying  workers 117 

Brief  list  of  books  and  j  ouruals  relating  to  apiculture 118 


ILLUSTRATIONS. 


PLATES. 

Page. 

An  apiary  in  Maryland Frontispiece. 

PLATE         I. — Honey  bees 16 

II. — Digestive  system  of  bee 22 

III. — Alfalfa  (Medicago  saliva) 64 

IV.— Esparcet  or  sainfoin  (Onobrychis  satlva) 64 

V. — Sweet  clover  or  melilot  (Uclilotus  alba) 64 

VI. — Acacia  (Acacia  constricta) 64 

VII. — Mesquite  (Prosopis  j  all  flora) 64 

VIII. — Blue  weed  or  viper's  bugloss  ( Tellium  vulgare) 64 

IX. — Crimson  clover  (  Trifolium  incarnatum) 64 

X. — Alsike  clover  ( Trifolium  Itybridum ) 64 

XI. — Bacillus  al vei 112 

TEXT  FIGURES. 

FIG.    1.  Worker  cells  of  common  East  Indian  honey  bee  (Apis  indica) 12 

2.  Worker  cells  of  tiny  East  Indian  honey  bee  (Apis  florca) 13 

3.  Comb  of  tiny  East  Indian  honeybee  (Apisflorea) 14 

4.  Worker  cells  of  common  honey  bee  (Apis  mellifera) 15 

5.  Ovaries  of  queen  and  workers 19 

6.  Heads  of  queen  and  drone 20 

7.  Modifications  of  the  legs  of  different  bees 21 

8.  Head  and  tongue  of  Apis  mellifera  worker 22 

9.  Wax  disks  of  social  bees 26 

10.  Comb  building,  side  of  hive  removed 27 

11.  Cross  section  of  brood  apartment 29 

12.  Use  of  veil  and  bee  smoker. 31 

13.  Manipulation — removing  comb  from  hive '. 32 

14.  Manipulation — tilting  to  bring  reverse  side  of  comb  to  view 33 

15.  Manipulation — reverse  side  of  comb  brought  to  view 33 

16.  Manipulation — examining  reverse  side  of  comb 33 

17.  Quinby  closed-end  frames 34 

18.  Box  hive  prepared  for  transportation 37 

19.  Frame  hive  prepared  for  transportation 37 

20.  An  apiary  in  Florida 38 

21.  An  apiary  in  California 39 

22.  Ancient  Greek  movable  comb  hive 41 

23.  Dadant-Quinby  form  of  Langstroth  hive  with  cap  and  gable  roof 41 

24.  Langstroth  frame— showing  construction 42 

25.  Form  in  which  to  nail  frames 42 

26.  Lock-joint  chaff  hive 43 

27.  Manner  of  nailing  hives • 43 

9 


10  ILLUSTRATIONS. 

Pago. 

FIG.  28.  Section  of  improved  tin  frame-rest 44 

29.  The  Langstroth  hive  (Uadant-Quinby  form),  cross  section  showing 

construction 45 

30.  The  Nonpareil  hive 46 

31.  Dadaut-Quiuby  form  of  Laugstroth  hive— open 46 

32.  The  Bingham  bee  smoker 48 

33.  Automatic  reversible  honey  extractor 49 

34.  Quinby  uncapping  knife 49 

35    Biugham  &  Hethenngton  uncapping  knife 49 

36.  Excelsior  wax  extractor 50 

37.  Simplicity  feeder 51 

38.  Fruit-jar  bee   feeder,  bottom  of  feeding  stage  and  perforated  cap 

shown  separately 51 

39.  The  Porter  spring  bee  escape  52 

40.  Daisy  foundation  fastener 53 

41.  Fastening  starter  of  comb  foundation  in  frame 53 

42.  Spur  wire-embedder 54 

43.  Comb-foundation  machine 55 

44.  Willow  herb  ( Epilobium  angnstifolium ) 57 

45.  Wagner's  flat  pea  (Lath yr us  sylrestris  wagneri) 59 

46.  Dwarf  Essex  or  winter  rape  ( lirassica  itapus) 60 

47.  Summer  or  bird  rape  ( lirassica  napus) 60 

48.  Sacaline  or   giant  knotweed  ( Polygonum  sachalinciisc) 61 

49.  Russian  or  hairy  vetch  (  Ficia  rlllosa) 61 

50.  Mountain  laurel  (Kalmla  latlfolla) 63 

51.  Apple  ( Pyrns  mains] 63 

52.  Heath-like  wild  aster  ( Aster  ericoides) 64 

53.  Transferring — drumming  the  bees  from  a  box  hive  into  a  frame  hive.  71 

54.  Transferred  comb  and  inserted  queen  cell 73 

55.  Uncapping  and  extracting  honey 77 

56.  One-piece  t(  V  "-grooved  sections 80 

57.  Super  with  section  holders  and  sections  in  place 80 

58.  Dadant-Quinby  form  of  Langstroth  hive,  elevated  from  bottom  board 

and  slid  back  for  ventilation  in  summer 82 

59.  Langstroth  hive  with  combined  surplus  case  and  shipping  crate 83 

60.  Honey  shipping  cases 83 

61.  Boardinau  solar  wax  extractor 85 

62.  Comb  showing  worker  brood  and  queen  cells 88 

63.  Queen  cells  and  worker  brood  in  various  stages 89 

64.  The  Benton  queen  cage  fur  transporting  a  queen  and  attendants  by 

mail 92 

65.  Caging  a  queen  for  mailing 92 

66.  Queen  introducing-cage 94 

67.  Hiving  a  swarm  of  bees 96 

68.  The  Simmins  non-swarming  system,  single-story  hive  with  supers  ...  103 

69.  The  Simmins  nou-.swarming  system,  double-story  hive  with  supers  ..  103 

70.  Beehives  with  Langdon  nouswarmer  attached 104 

71.  Percolator  for  preparation  of  winter  food 107 

72.  The  American  straw  hive  of  Hayek  Bros 108 

73.  Davis  hive  with  newspapers  packed  between  inner  and  outer  cases 

and  brood  frames  on  end  for  winter 108 

74.  Double-walled  hive  adapted  to  outdoor  wintering  as  well  as  summer 

use  below  40C  north  latitude  in  United  States 109 

75.  An  apiary  in  Vermont — winter  view 110 

76.  Cheshire  antirobbing  entrance. .......................... 117 


~'  "X""* " 

THE  HONEY  BEE: 
A  MANUAL  OP  IKSTRUCTION  JN  APICULTURE. 


NS1 


CHAPTER  I. 

CLASSIFICATION  OP   THE   HONEY    BEE. 
THE   DIFFERENT   SPECIES  AND   RACES. 

A  knowledge  of  the  structural  peculiarities  and  the  life  history  of 
bees  will  aid  anyone  who  essays  to  manage  them  for  profit  in  deter- 
mining more  accurately  what  conditions  are  necessary  to  their  greatest 
welfare.  It  is  not  to  be  understood  that  such  knowledge  will  take  the 
place  of  an  acquaintance  with  those  conditions  under  which  actual 
practice  has  shown  that  bees  thrive,  but  that  it  forms  a  good  basis  for 
an  understanding  of  whatever  practice  has  found  best  in  the  manage- 
ment of  these  industrious  and  profitable  insects.  It  will  also  assist  in 
pointing  out  in  what  way  practice  can  be  improved. 

In  a  small  treatise  like  the  present  one,  the  object  of  which  is  to  give 
in  plain  language  the  information  needed  by  one  who  engages  in  bee 
keeping  primarily  for  profit,  it  is  not  possible  to  do  more  than  present 
a  mere  outline  of  classification  and  a  few  general  facts  regarding  struc- 
ture. The  reader  who  finds  them  interesting  and  valuable  in  his  work 
is  reminded  that  the  treatment  of  these  matters  in  more  extended 
volumes,  such  as  Langstroth's,  Cheshire's,  etc.,  will  be  found  far  more  so. 

Singling  out  from  the  order  Hymenoptera,  or  membranous-winged 
insects,  the  family  Apidae,  or  bee  family,  several  marked  types  called 
genera  are  seen  to  compose  it,  such  as  Apis  (the  hive  bee),  Bombus  (the 
bumble  bee),  Xylocopa  (the  carpenter  bee),  Mecjacliilc  (the  leaf  cutter), 
Melipona  (the  stingless  honey  bee  of  the  American  tropics),  etc.  All 
of  these  are  very  interesting  to  study,  and  each  fulfills  a  purpose  in 
the  economy  of  nature;  but  the  plan  of  these  pages  can  only  be  to  con- 
sider the  lirst  genus,  Apis,  or  the  hive  bee.  Incidentally  it  may  be 
mentioned  that  the  plan  of  introducing  the  stingless  bees  (Melipona) 
from  tropical  America  has  frequently  been  brought  up  with  the  expec- 
tation of  realizing  important  practical  results  from  it.  These  bees 
might  possibly  be  kept  in  the  wanner  portions  of  our  country,  but  their 
honey  yield  is  small,  not  well  ripened,  and  not  easily  harvested  in  good 
shape,  since  the  honey  cells  are  of  dark  wax,  like  that  made  by  our 
bumble  bees,  and  they  are  not  arranged  in  regular  order,  but  in  irregular 
clumps  like  those  of  bumble  bees.  The  writer  had  a  colony  under  obser- 
vation last  year,  and  experiments  have  been  made  with  them  in  their 
native  lands  as  well  as  in  European  countries.  Of  the  genus  Apis  the 
only  representative  in  this  country  is  mellifera,  although  several  others 
are  natives  of  Asia  and  Africa. 


12 


MANUAL  OF  APICULTURE. 


THE   COMMON   EAST   INDIAN  HONEY   BEE. 


(Apis  indica  Fab.) 

The  common  bee  of  southern  Asia  is  kept  in  very  limited  numbers 
and  with  a  small  degree  of  profit  in  earthen  jars  and  sections  of  hol- 
low trees  in  portions  of  the  British  and  Dutch  East  Indies.  They  are 
also  found  wild,  and  build  when  in  this  state  in  hollow  trees  and  in 
rock  clefts.  Their  combs,  composed  of  hexagonal  wax  cells,  are  ranged 
parallel  to  each  other  like  those  of  A.  mellifera,  but  the  worker  brood 
cells  are  smaller  than  those  of  our  ordinary  bees,  showing  30  to  the 
square  inch  of  surface  instead  of  20,  while  the  comb  where  worker 
brood  is  reared,  instead  of  having,  like  that  of  A.  mellifera,  a  thickness 
of  seven  eighths  inch,  is  but  five-eighths  inch  thick. 

•(Fig.  1.) 

The  workers. — The  bodies  of  these,  three  eighths 
inch  long  when  empty,  measure  about  one-half  inch 
when  dilated  with  honey.  The  thorax  is  covered 
with  brownish  hair  and  the  shield  or  crescent  between 
the  wings  is  large  and  yellow.  The  abdomen  is  yel- 
low underneath.  Above  it  presents  a  ringed  appear- 
ance, the  anterior  part  of  each  segment  being  orange 
yellow,  while  the  posterior  part  shows  bands  of 
brown  of  greater  or  less  width  and  covered  with 
whitish-brown  hairs;  tip  black.  They  are  nimble  on 
foot  and  on  the  wing,  and  active  gatherers. 

The  queens. — The  queens  are  large  in  proportion  to 
their  workers  and  are  quite  prolific;  color,  leather  or 
dark  coppery. 

The  drones. — These  arc  only  slightly  larger  than 
the  workers;  color,  jet-like  blue  black,  with  no  yellow,  their  strong 
wings  showing  changing  hues  like  those  of  wasps. 

Manipulations  with  colonies  of  these  bees  are  easy  to  perform  if  smoke 
be  used,  and  though  they  are  more  excitable  than  our  common  hive  bees, 
this  peculiarity  does  not  lead  them  to  sting  more,  but  seems  rather 
to  proceed  from  fear.  The  sting  is  also  less  severe. 

Under  the  rude  methods  thus  far  employed  in  the  management  of 
this  bee  no  great  yields  of  honey  are  obtained,  some  10  or  12  pounds 
having  been  the  most  reported  from  a  single  hive.  It  is  quite  probable 
that  if  imported  into  this  country  it  would  do  more.  These  bees  would 
no  doubt  visit  many  small  flowers  not  frequented  by  the  hive  bees  we 
now  have,  and  whose  nectar  is  therefore  wasted,  but  very  likely  they 
might  not  withstand  the  severe  winters  of  the  North  unless  furnished 
with  such  extra  protection  as  would  be  afforded  by  quite  warm  cellars 
or  special  repositories. 


Flo.  1.— Worker  cells 
of  common  East  Indian 
honey  \)ee(Apisindica) ; 
natural  size.  (Original.) 


EAST   INDIAN   BEES. 


13 


THE   TINY  EAST   INDIAN   HONEY   BEE. 
(Apis  florea  Fab.) 

This  bee,  also  a  native  of  East  India,  is  the  smallest  known  species 
of  the  genus.  It  builds  in  the  open  air,  attaching  a  single  comb  to  a 
twig  of  a  shrub  or  small  tree.  This  comb  is  only  about  the  size  of  a  man's 
hand  and  is  exceedingly  delicate,  there  being  on 
each  side  100  worker  cells  to  the  square  inch  of 
surface  (figs.  2  and  3).  The  workers,  more  slen- 
der than  house  flies,  though  longer  bodied,  are 
blue-black  in  color,  with  the  anterior  third  of 
the  abdomen  bright  orange.  Colonies  of  these 
bees  accumulate  so  little  surplus  honey  as  to  give 
no  hope  that  their  cultivation  would  be  profit- 
able. 

THE    GIANT   EAST   INDIAN   HONEY   BEE. 

(Apis  dorsata  Fab.) 

FIG.   2.— Worker  cells  of 

This  large  bee  (Plate  I,  figs.  2  and  3),  which    *«»y  East  Indian  honey  bee 

0          .        v  (Apis  florea);  natural  size. 

might  not  be  inappropriately  styled  the  Giant  (Original). 
East  Indian  bee,  has  its  home  also  in  the  far  East — both  on  the  con- 
tinent of  Asia  and  the  adjacent  islands.  There  are  probably  several 
varieties,  more  or  less  marked,  of  this  species,  and  very  likely  Apis 
zonata  Guer.  of  the  Philippine  Islands,  reported  to  be  even  larger 
than  A.  dorsata,  will  prove  on  further  investigation  to  be  only  a  variety 
of  the  latter.  All  the  varieties  of  these  bees  build  huge  combs  of  very 
pure  wax — often  5  to  G  feet  in  length  and  3  to  4  feet  in  width,  which 
they  attach  to  overhanging  ledges  of  rocks  or  to  large  limbs  of  lofty 
trees  in  the  primitive  forests  or  jungles.  When  attached  to  limbs  of 
trees  they  are  built  singly  and  present  much  the  same  appearance  as 
those  of  the  tiny  East  Indian  bee,  shown  in  the  accompanying  figure 
(fig.  3).  The  Giant  bee,  however,  quite  in  contradistinction  to  the  other 
species  of  Apis  mentioned  here,  does  not  construct  larger  cells  in  which 
to  rear  drones,  these  and  the  workers  being  produced  in  cells  of  the 
same  size.  Of  these  bees — long  a  sort  of  a  myth  to  the  bee  keepers  of 
America  and  Europe — strange  stories  have  been  told.  It  has  been 
stated  that  they  build  their  combs  horizontally,  after  the  manner  of 
paper-making  wasps;  that  they  are  so  given  to  wandering  as  to  make 
it  impossible  to  keep  them  in  hives,  and  that  their  ferocity  renders 
them  objects  greatly  to  be  dreaded.  The  first  real  information  re- 
garding these  points  was  given  by  the  author.  He  visited  India  in 
1880-81  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  colonies  of  Apis  dorsata.  These 
were  procured  in  the  jungles,  cutting  the  combs  from  their  original 


14 


MANUAL   OF  APICULTURE. 


attachments,  and  it  was  thus  ascertained  that  (as  might  have  been 
expected  in  the  case  of  any  species  of  Apis),  their  combs  are  always 
built  perpendicularly;  also  that  the  colonies  placed  in  frame  hives 
and  permitted  to  fly  freely  did  not  desert  these  habitations  and  that, 
far  from  being  ferocious,  these  colonies  were  easily  handled  by  proper 
precautions,  without  even  the  use  of  smoke.  It  was  also  proved  by 
the  quantity  of  honey  and  wax  present  that  they  are  good  gatherers. 
The  execution  at  that  time  of  the  plan  of  bringing  these  bees  to  the 
United  States  was  prevented  only  by  severe  illness  contracted  in  India. 
These  large  bees  would  doubtless  be  able  to  get  honey  from  flowers 
whose  nectaries  are  located  out  of  reach  of  ordinary  bees,  notably  those 
of  the  red  clover,  now  visited  chiefly  by  bumble  bees  and  which  it 

is  thought  the  East  In- 
dian boos  might  pollinate 
and  cause  to  produce  seed 
more  abundantly.  Even 
if  no  further  utilizable, 
they  might  prove  an  im- 
portant factor  in  the  pro- 
duction in  the  Southern 
States  of  large  quantities 
of  excellent  beeswax,  now 


Fia.   3. — Comb  of  tiny  East   Indian   honey  beo  (Apis  florea) 
one-third  natural  si/o.     (Original.) 


such  an  expensive  article. 
Should  these  bees  and 
the  common  East  Indian 
bee  (Apis  imlica},  pre- 
viously referred  to,  visit 
in  the  main  only  such 
flowers  as  are  not  adapted 
to  our  hive  bees,  their  in- 
troduction, wherever  it 
could  be  made  successful, 
would,  without  decreas- 
ing the  yield  from  our 

hive  bees,  add  materially  to  the  honey  and  wax  production  of  the  coun- 
try. Theoretical  conclusions  as  to  the  results  of  such  an  introduction 
can  not  be  of  much  account  unless  based  upon  an  intimate  acquaintance 
with  the  nature  and  habits  of  the  bees  to  be  introduced.  Enough  is 
known  of  the  small  bee  to  remove  all  doubt  regarding  the  possibility 
of  its  successful  introduction,  and  it  is  also  probable  that  the  large  one 
would  prove  valuable.  In  neither  case  does  there  appear  any  possi- 
bility that  evil  results  might  follow  their  introduction.  There  are  also 
numerous  other  varieties  or  species  of  bees  in  Africa  and  Asia  about 
which  no  more  or  even  less  is  known,  but  to  investigate  them  fully  will 
require  much  time  and  considerable  expense.  It  is  a  subject,  however, 
that  should  receive  careful  consideration  because  of -the  possible  bene- 
fits  to  apiculture  and  the  wider  beneficial  effects  on  agriculture. 


APIS    MELLIFERA VARIOUS    RACES. 


15 


THE   COMMON    HIVE    OR   HONEY   BEE. 
(Apis  meUifera  Linn.) 

Besides  the  common  brown  or  German  bee  imported  from  Europe  to 
this  country  some  time  in  the  seventeenth  century  and  now  widely 
spread  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific,  several  other  races  have  been 
brought  here— the  Italian  in  1860,  and  later  the  Egyptian,  the  Cyprian, 
the  Syrian,  the  Palestine,  the  Oarniolan  (Plate  I,  figs.  1,  4,  and  5),  and 
the  Tunisian.  Of  these  the  brown  or  German,  the  Italian,  and,  in  a 
few  apiaries,  the  Carniolan  bees  are  probably  the  only  races  existing 
pure  in  the  United  States,  the  others  having  become  more  or  less 
hybridized  with  the  brown  race  or  among  themselves  or  their  cultiva- 
tion having  been  discontinued.  It  should  also  be  remarked  that  so 
few  have  kept  their  Carniolans  pure  that  purchasers  who  wish  this 
race  should  use  caution  in  their  selection  or  else  import  their  own 
breeding  queens.  There  are  many  breeders  of  Italians  from  whom 
good  stock  can  be  obtained.  Egyptian  bees 
were  tried  some  thirty  years  ago,  but  only  to  a 
very  limited  extent,  and,  as  has  been  the  case 
with  Syrians  and  Palestines  imported  in  1880, 
and  whose  test  was  more  prolonged  and  general, 
they  were  condemned  as  inferior  in  temper  and 
wintering  qualities  to  the  races  of  bees  already 
here,  it  not  being  thought  that  these  points  of 
inferiority  were  sufficiently  balanced  by  their 
greater  prolificness  and  their  greater  energy  in 
honey  collecting. 

The  Tunisians,  for  similar  reasons  and  also 
•because  they  are  great  collectors  of  propolis, 
never  became  popular,  although  a  persistent 
attempt  was  made  a  few  years  since  to  create  ^^ 

sale  for  them  under  the  new  name  of  "Punic     FiG.4._worker-ceiisofcom 
bees,"  the  undesirable  qualities  of  the  race  hav-    mon honey bee(Apismeinfera), 
ing  previously  been  made  known,  under  the  orig-    natliral  size'  <°risiual-> 
inal  name,  by  the  author,  who  had  tested  them  carefully  for  several 
years — a  part  of  the  time  in  Tunis. 

Cyprians. — Bees  of  the  race  native  to  the  Island  of  Cyprus  have  pro- 
duced the  largest  yield  of  honey  on  record  from  a  single  colony  in  this 
country,  1,000  pounds  in  one  season.  Everyone  who  has  fairly  tested 
them  admits  their  wonderful  honey-gathering  powers  and  their  perse- 
vering courage  in  their  labors  even,  when  the  flowers  are  secreting 
honey  but  scantily.  They  winter  well  and  defend  their  hives  against 
robber  bees  and  other  enemies  with  greater  energy  than  any  other 
known  race.  When  storing  honey  Cyprians  fill  the  cells  quite  full 
before  sealing,  and  thus  the  capping  rests  against  the  honey,  present- 


16  MANUAL  OF  APICULTURE. 

ing  a  semitransparent  or  u  watery"  appearance,  which  is  undesirable. 
They  are  extremely  sensitive,  hence  easily  angered  by  rough  or  bun- 
gling manipulators,  and  when  once  thoroughly  aroused  are  very  ener- 
getic in  the  use  of  their  stings.  These  faults  have  caused  a  very 
general  rejection  of  Cyprians,  especially  by  those  who  produce  comb 
honey.  Even  the  producers  of  extracted  honey  do  not  seem  to  have 
learned  how  to  manipulate  Cyprians  easily  and  without  the  use  of 
much  smoke,  nor  how  much  more  rapidly  they  could  free  their  extract- 
ing combs  from  Cyprian  bees  than  from  Italians.  Nor  have  they 
seemed  to  count  as  of  much  importance  the  fact  that  Cyprians,  unlike 
Italians  and  German  or  common  bees,  do  not  volunteer  an  attack 
when  undisturbed  5  that  they  will,  in  fact,  let  one  pass  and  repass 
their  hives  quite  unmolested  arid  even  under  such  circumstances  as 
would  call  forth  a  vigorous  and  very  disagreeable  protest  from  the 
other  races  just  mentioned.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  there  has  been 
such  a  widespread  rejection  of  a  race  having  such  important  and  well- 
established  excellent  qualities.  It  would  be  easier  by  selection  in 
breeding  to  reduce  the  faults  of  this  race  than  to  bring  any  other  cul- 
tivated race  to  their  equal  in  the  other  desirable  points. 

Cyprians  are  smaller-bodied  and  more  slender  than  bees  of  European 
races.  The  abdomen  is  also  more  pointed  and  shows,  when  the  bees 
are  purely  bred,  three  light  orange  bauds  on  the  three  segments  nearest 
the  thorax.  The  underside  of  the  abdomen  is  even  lighter  orange 
colored  nearly  or  quite  to  the  tip.  The  postscutellum — the  small 
lunule-like  prominence  on  the  thorax  between  the  bases  of  the  wings- 
is  likewise  orange  colored  instead  of  dull,  as  in  European  races.  The 
rest  of  the  thorax  is  covered  with  a  russet-brown  pubescence.  Cyp- 
rians are  the  yellowest  of  the  original  races,  and  their  bright  colors 
and  symmetrical  forms  render  them  attractive  objects. 

Italians. — Through  the  agency  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture  bees  of  this  race  were  introduced  direct  from  Italy  in 
1860.  There  had  previously  been  repeated  individual  efforts  to  secure 
Italians  bred  in  Germany,  where  the  race  had  been  introduced  some 
years  earlier,  and  a  small  number  of  queens  had  been  landed  here  alive 
in  the  autumn  of  1859,  but  most  of  these  died  the  following  winter  and 
the  few  remaining  alive  seem  not  to  have  been  multiplied  as  rapidly  as 
those  obtained  in  Italy  by  a  purchasing  agent  of  the  Department  of 
Agriculture  and  landed  here  early  in  1860.  Their  good  qualities  were 
soon  appreciated,  and  they  had  become  well  established  and  widely 
spread  long  before  the  Cyprians,  imported  twenty  years  later.  For 
this  reason,  together  with  the  fact  that  they  cap  their  surplus  combs 
whiter  than  some  other  races  and  because  less  skill  is  required  in 
subduing  and  handling  Italians,  they  have  retained  their  popularity 
over  bees  which,  though  better  honey  gatherers,  are  more  nervous 
under  manipulation.  Their  golden- yellow  color  has  also  proved  so 
attractive  to  many  that  the  good  qualities  of  more  somber-hued  races — 
gentler,  better  winterers,  and  better  comb  builders— have  not  received 


APIS    MELLIFERA— VARIOUS   RACES,  17 

due  consideration.  Italians  are,  however,  certainly  preferable  to  the 
common  brown  or  black  bees,  for  they  show  greater  energy  in  gather- 
ing honey  and  in  the  defense  of  their  hives  against  moth  larvae  and 
robber  bees,  while  at  the  same  time  they  are  gentler  tinder  manipula- 
tion than  the  blacks,  though  they  do  not  winter  as  well  in  severe 
climates. 

Italian  workers  nearly  equal  Carniolans  in  size,  and  show  across  the 
abdomen  when  the  latter  is  distended  with  honey  not  less  than  three 
yellow  bands,  which  approach  more  or  less  a  reddish  or  dark  leathery 
color.  By  selection  in  some  instances,  and  in  others  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  Cyprian  blood,  Italians  and  Italian  hybrids  have  recently  been 
bred  which  show  four  or  five  yellow  bands  or  which  are  even  yellow  to 
the  tip  of  the  abdomen.  They  are  certainly  pleasing  to  the  eye,  and 
in  case  due  heed  has  been  given  to  the  vigor  and  working  qualities  of 
the  stock  selected  when  establishing  the  strain,  no  valid  objection  can 
be  brought  against  them  except  the  tendency  they  have  to  revert  to 
the  original  type  of  Italians.  This  is  due  to  the  comparatively  short 
time  they  have  been  bred,  and  with  each  season's  selection  will  of 
course  grow  less. 

Carniolans. — These,  the  gray  bees  from  the  elevated  Alpine  province 
of  Cnrniolu,  Austria,  are  the  ge'ntlest  of  all  races,  and  as,  besides  their 
other  good  qualities,  they  winter  the  best  of  any,  it  is  not  surprising  to 
see  that  they  have  steadily  grown  in  favor.  Their  sealed  combs  are 
exceedingly  white,  as  they  do  not  fill  the  cells  so  full  that  the  honey 
touches  the  capping,  and  they  gather  little  propolis,  qualities  highly 
appreciated  by  the  producer  of  comb  honey.  They  are  quite  prolific, 
and  if  kept  in  small  hives,  such  as  have  been  popularized  of  late  in  the 
United  States,  are  somewhat  more  inclined  to  swarm  than  the  other 
races  introduced  here.  This  tendency  becomes  more  pronounced  when 
they  are  taken  into  a  country  whose  summers  are  hot,  like  ours,  and 
their  hives  are  not  well  shaded,  as  they  have  been  bred  for  centuries, 
with  only  slight  introduction  of  outside  blood,  in  a  climate  where  the 
summers  are  short  and  cool.  Moreover,  the  practice  in  Carniola  is  to 
place  the  long,  shallow  hives  used  almost  exclusively  there,  in  beehouses 
and  side  by  side,  one  above  the  other,  with  intervening  air  spaces,  so 
that  at  most  only  the  front  ends  are  exposed  to  the  sun.  This  manage- 
ment long  continued  has  doubtless  tended  to  develop  and  fix  more  or 
less  permanently  in  this  race  certain  characteristics  which  should  be 
taken  into  account  in  their  management  elsewhere.  With  these  pre- 
cautions they  do  well  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States.  (See  Plate  I, 
.figs.  1,  4,  and  5.) 

The  Carniolan  worker  is  readily  recognized  by  its  large  form,  less 
pointed  abdomen,  and  general  ashy  gray  coat,  the  abdominal  segments 
especially  presenting  a  ringed  appearence  on  account  of  silvery  white 
hairs  which  cover  the  posterior  half  of  each  of  these  segments.  By 
crossing  Carniolans  with  Italians  or  with  Cyprians  a  yellow  type  with 


18  MANUAL   OF   APICULTURE. 

silvery  rings  is  produced,  and  by  continued  selection  in  breeding  the 
gentle  disposition  of  the  Carniolans  can  be  secured  with  the  greater 
honey-gathering  powers  of  Cyprians  should  these  be  employed  in  form- 
ing the  new  strain. 

German,  common  black,  or  brown  bees. — These  bees  are  found  com- 
monly throughout  our  country  from  ocean  to  ocean,  botU  wild  and 
domesticated.  Exactly  when  they  were  introduced  from  Europe  is  not 
known,  but  considerable  evidence  exists  which  shows  that  there  were 
no  hive  bees  ( Apis  mellifera)  in  this  country  for  some  time  after  the  first 
colonies  were  established;  also,  it  was  not  until  near  the  close  of  the 
last  century  that  they  reached  the  Mississippi,  and  less  than  half  a 
century  has  passed  since  the  first  were  successfully  landed  on  the  Pacific 
Coast. 

Many  bee  keepers,  having  more  attractively  colored  and  frequently 
better  bees,  are  inclined  to  consider  this  race  as  possessing  hardly  any 
redeeming  qualities,  or  at  least  to  underrate  these  because  accompanied 
by  undesirable  traits.  While  it  is  true  that  they  have  some  serious 
faults,  the  latter  are  not  so  great  as  those  of  some  other  races.  They 
have  become  thoroughly  acclimated  since  their  first  importation,  over 
two  centuries  ago,  and  besides  possessing  good  wintering  and  comb- 
building  qualities,  they  will,  when  the  flow  of  honey  is  quite  abundant, 
generally  equal  Italians  in  gathering.  But  the  disposition  which  bees 
of  this  race  have  of  flying  toward  one  who  approaches  the  apiary  and 
stinging  him,  even  though  the  hives  have  not  been  molested,  their  way 
of  running  excitedly  over  the  combs  and  dropping  in  bunches  when 
tl»"y  are  handled,  besides  stinging  the  backs  of  the  operator's  hands, 
unless  the  whole  colony  has  first  been  thoroughly  subdued  and  the 
bees  induced  to  gorge  themselves  with  honey,  or  are  constantly  deluged 
with  smoke,  are  very  annoying  to  the  novice  who  undertakes  to  per- 
form necessary  manipulations  with  them,  and  may  even  so  discourage 
and  daunt  him  as  to  cause  the  neglect  of  work  of  great  importance 
to  the  welfare  of  the  colony.  The  easy  discouragement  of  bees  of  this 
race  when  a  sudden  check  in  the  flow  of  honey  occurs  is  also  a  pecul- 
iarity which  does  not  commend  them.  These  things,  tending  to  reduce 
profits,  often  dampen  the  beginner's  enthusiasm  before  he  has  acquired 
the  knowledge  and  skill  necessary  to  make  the  work  genuinely  success- 
ful. He  had  therefore  better  choose  either  Italians  or  Carniolans,  and 
use  as  breeders  only  queens  that  are  known  to  have  mated  purely. 

The  common  race  shows  considerable  variation  in  its  markings  and 
qualities.  The  workers  have  a  dull,  rusty  brown  color,  especially  about 
the  thorax.  Some  strains  are  however  much  darker  than  others  and 
in  general  the  drones  are  darker  than  the  workers.  In  size  workers, 
drones,  and  queens  of  this  race  are  intermediate  between  the  other 
European  races  and  those  from  the  Orient.  The  same  care  and  skill 
applied  in  the  selection  of  breeding  stock  would  result  in  as  great  im- 
provement in  this  as  in  any  of  the  more  attractive  yellow  races. 


CHAPTER  II. 


KINDS   OP    BEES    COMPOSING  A   COLONY— BEE    PRODUCTS  AND 
DESCRIPTION  OP   COMBS— DEVELOPMENT   OF  BROOD. 

KINDS   OF  BEES   IN  A   COLONY. 

Each  colony  of  bees  in  good  condition  at  the  opening  of  the  season 
contains  a  laying  queen  and 
some  30,000  to  40,000  worker 
bees,  or  six  to  eight  quarts  by 
measurement.  Besides  this 
there  should  be  four,  five,  or 
even  more  combs  fairly  stocked 
with  developing  brood,  with  a 
good  supply  of  honey  about  it. 
Drones  may  also  be  present, 
even  several  hundred  in  num- 
ber, although  it  is  better  to 
limit  their  production  to  se- 
lected hives,  which  in  the  main 
it  is  not  difficult  to  accomplish. 

Under  normal  conditions  the 
queen  lays  all  of  the  eggs  which 
are  deposited  in  the  hive,  being 
capable  of  depositing  under  fa- 
vorable conditions  as  many  as 
4,000  in  twenty-four  hours.  Or- 
dinarily she  mates  but  once, 
flying  from  the  hive  to  meet 
the  drone — the  male  bee — high 
in  the  air,  when  five  to  nine 
days  old  generally,  although 


this  time  varies  under  different 
climatic  conditions  as  well  as 
with  different  races.  Seminal 
fluid  sufficient  to  impregnate 


FIG.  5.— Ovaries  of  queen  and  workers :  A,  abdomen 
of  queen— under  side  (magnified  eight  times) ;  P,  peti- 
ole; O,  O,  ovaries ;  hs,  position  filled  by  honey  sac;  ds, 
position  through  which  digestive  system  passes;  od, 
oviduct;  co.d,  common  oviduct;  E,  egg-passing  ovi- 
duct; *,  spermatheca;  i,  intestine;  pb, poison  bag; 
p.g,  poison  glaiid;  st,  sting;  p,  palpi.  -B,  rudimentary 
ovaries  of  ordinary  worker ;  «p,  rudimentary  sperma- 
theca.  C,  partially  developed  ovaries  of  fertile 
worker;  sp,  rudimentary  spermatheca.  (From  Ches- 
hire.) 


the  greater  number  of  eggs  she 
will  deposit  during  the  next  two  or  three  years  (sometimes  even  four 
or  five  years)  is  stored  at  the  time  of  mating  in  a  sac—the  spermatheca, 
opening  into  the  oviduct  or  egg-passage  (fig.  5, «).  The  queen  seems 


19 


20 


MANUAL   OF  APICULTURE. 


to  be  able  to  control  this  opening  so  as  to  fertilize  eggs  or  not  as  she 
wills  at  the  time  of  depositing  them.  If  fertilized  they  develop  into 
workers  or  queens  according  to  the  character  of  the  food  given,  the 
size  and  shape  of  the  cell,  etc. ;  if  unfertilized,  into  drones.  The  queen's 
life  may  extend  over  a  period  of  four  or  five  years,  but  three  years  is 
quite  as  long  as  any  queen  ought  to  be  kept,  unless  a  particularly  valu- 
able one  for  breeding  purposes  and  not  easy  to  replace.  Indeed,  if 
full  advantage  be  taken  of  her  laying  powers  it  will  rarely  be  found 
profitable  to  retain  a  queen  longer  than  two  years. 

Upon  the  workers,  which  are  undeveloped  females,  devolves  all  the 
labor  of  gathering  honey,  pollen,  propolis,  and  bringing  water,  secret- 
ing wax,  building  combs,  stopping  up  crevices  in  the  hive,  nursing  the 
brood,  and  defending  the  hives.  To  enable  them  to  do  all  this  they 
are  furnished  with  highly  specialized  organs.  These  will  be  more  fully 
referred  to  in  connection  witli  the  description  of  the  products  gathered 
and  prepared  by  the  workers. 


FIG.  6. — A,  Head  of  queen,  magnified  ten  times,  showing  smaller  compound  eyes  at  sides,  and  three 
ocelli  on  A'ertex  of  head;  n,  jawnoleh.  B,  head  of  drone,  magnified  ten  times,  showing  larger  com- 
pound eyes  at  sides,  with  three  ocelli  hetween;  «,  jaw  notch.  (From  Cheshire.) 

The  drones,  aside  from  contributing  somewhat  to  the  general  warmth 
of  the  hive  necessary  to  the  development  of  the  brood,  seem  t;>  have 
no  other  office  but  that  connected  with  reproduction.  In  tin-  wild  state 
colonies  of  bees  are  widely  separated,  being  located  wherever  the 
swarms  chance  to  have  found  hollow  trees  or  rock  cavities,  hence  the 
production  of  many  drones  has  been  provided  for,  so  young  queens 
Hying  out  to  mate  will  not  run  too  many  risks  from  bird  and  insect 
enemies,  storms,  etc.  Mating  in  the  hive  would  result  in  too  continuous 
in-and-in  breeding,  producing  loss  of  vigor.  As  we  find  it  arranged,  the 
most  vigorous  are  the  most  likely  to  reproduce  their  species. 

At  the  time  of  the  queen's  mating  there  are  in  the  hive  neither  eggs 
nor  young  larvre  from  which  to  rear  another  queen;  thus,  should  she  be 
lost,  no  more  fertilized  eggs  would  be  deposited,  and  the  old  workers 
gradually  dying  off' without  being  replaced  by  young  ones,  the  colony 
would  become  extinct  in  the  course  of  a  few  months  at  most,  or  meet  a 


ORGANS  AND  PRODUCTS  OP  BEES. 


21 


speedier  fate  through  intruders,  such  as  wax-moth  larvae,  robber  bees, 
wasps,  etc.,  which  its  weakness  would  prevent  its  repelling  longer; 
or  cold  is  very  likely  to  finish  such  a  decimated  colony,  especially  as 
the  bees,  because  queenless,  are  uneasy  and  do  not  cluster  compactly. 

The  loss  of  queens  while  flying  out  to  mate  is  evidently  one  of  the 
provisions  in  nature  to  prevent  bees  from  too  great  multiplication,  for 
were  there  no  such  checks  they  would  soon  become  a  pest  in  the  laud. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  risk  to  the  queen  is  not  uselessly  increased,  for 
she  mates  but  once  during  her  life. 

BEE  PRODUCTS  AND  ORGANS  USED  IN  THEIR  PREPARATION. 

Pollen  and  honey  form  the  food  of  honey  bees  and  their  developing 
brood.  Both  of  these  are  plant  products  which  are  only  modified  some- 
what by  the  manipulation  to  which  they  are  subjected  by  the  bees  and 
are  then  stored  in  waxen  cells  if  not  wanted  for  immediate  use.  Pollen, 
the  fertilizing  dust  of  flowers,  is  carried  home  by  the  bees  in  small  pel- 


FIG.  7.— Modifications  of  the  legs  of  different  bees:  A,  Apis:  a,  wax  pincer  and  outer  view  of  hind 
leg;  6,  inner  aspect  of  wax  pincer  and  leg;  c,  compound  hairs  holding  grains  of  pollen;  d,  anterior 
leg,  showing  antenna  cleaner ;  e,  spur  on  tibia  of  middle  leg.  B,  Melipona :  f,  peculiar  group  of  spines 
at  apex  of  tibia  of  hind  leg;  g,  inner  aspect  of  wax  pincer  and  first  joint  of  tarsus.  C,  Bombus: 
/*,  wax  pincer ;  i,  inner  view  of  same  anu  first  joint  of  tarsus— all  enlarged.  (From  Insect  Life.) 

Jets  held  in  basket-like  depressions  on  each  of  the  hind  legs.  The  hairs 
covering  the  whole  surface  of  the  bee's  body  are  more  or  less  service- 
able in  enabling  the  bee  to  collect  pollen,  but  those  on  the  under  side 
of  the  abdomen  are  most  1'kely  to  get  well  dusted,  and  the  rows  of 
hairs,  nine  in  number,  known  as  pollen  brushes,  located  on  the  inner 
surface  of  the  first  tarsal  joint  (fig.  7,  6),  are  then  brought  into  use  to 
brush  out  this  pollen.  When  these  brushes  are  filled  with  pollen  the 
hind  legs  are  crossed  during  flight  and  the  pollen  combed  out  by  the 
spine-like  hairs  that  fringe  the  posterior  margin  of  the  tibial  joint— that 
above  a  in  fig.  7.  The  outer  surface  of  this  joint  is  depressed,  and  this, 
with  the  rows  of  curved  hairs  on  the  anterior  margin  and  the  straighter 
ones  just  referred  to  forms  a  basket-like  cavity  known  as  the  cor- 


22 


MANUAL    OF   APICULTURE. 


biculum  or  pollen  basket,  represented  by  the  longest  joints  of  the  legs, 
A,  B,  and  C,  fig.  7.  Into  this  the  pollen  falls,  and  with  the  middle 
pair  of  legs  is  tamped  down  for  transportation  to  the  hive.  Having 
arrived  there,  the  bee  thrusts  its  hind  legs  into  a  cell  located  as  near  to 
the  brood  nest  as  may  be,  and  loosening  the  pellets  lets  them  fall  into 
the  bottom  of  the  cell.  The  tibial  spur  (fig.  7,  e)  on  each  middle  leg  is, 
as  Professor  Cheshire  has  pointed  out,  probably  of  use  in  prying  the 
pellets  out.  The  latter  are  simply  dropped  into  cells  and  left  for  some 

other  bee  to  pack  down 

S  by  kneadillS  or  Pressing 

U  with  its  mandibles.    Va- 

vFJfRBSKSi!*' 

nous    colors — yellow, 

brown,  red,  slate,  etc., 
according  to  the  kinds 
of  flowers  from  which 
gathered —  frequently 
show  in  layers  in  the 
same  cell.  Often  when 
partly  filled  with  pollen 
the  cell  is  then  filled  up 
with  honey  and  sealed 
more  or  less  hermetically 
with  wax.  The  bees 
store  the  pollen,  for  con- 
venience in  feeding, 
above  and  at  the  sides 
of  the  brood  and  as  near 
to  it  as  possible,  the 
comb  on  each  side  of  the 
brood  nest  being  gener- 
ally well  stored  with  it. 

NECTAR   AND    HONEY. 

The  liquid  secreted  in 
the  nectaries  of  flowers 
is  usually  quite  thin, 
containing,  when  just 
gathered,  a  large  per- 
centage of  water.  Bees 
suck  or  lap  it  up  from 
sucli  flowers  as  they  can 
reach  with  their  flexible,  sucking  tongue,  0.25  to  0.28  inch  long.  (Fig. 
8,  I.)  This  nectar  is  taken  into  the  honey  sac  (Plate  If,  h.  s.)  located  in 
the  abdomen,  for  transportation  to  the  hive.  It  is  possible  that  part  of 
the  water  is  eliminated  by  the  gatherers  before  they  reach  the  hive.  A 
Kussian  bee  keeper,  M.  Nassanoff,  while  dissecting  a  worker,  discovered 


Jb'lG.  8. — Head  and  tongue  of  Apis  mellifera  worker  (magni- 
fied twelve  times),  a,  Antenna,  or  feeler;  in,  mamlibula,  or 
outer  jaw;  g,  gum  flap,  or  epipharynx;  mxp,  maxillary  palpus; 
pg,  paraglossa;  mx,  maxilla,  or  inner  jaw;  Ip,  labial  palpus, 
I,  ligula,  or  tongue;  b,  bouton,  or  spoon  of  the  same.  (Reduced 
from  Cheshire.) 


Bui.  1,  new  Aeries,  Div.  of  Entomology,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


PLATE  I!. 


DIGESTIVE  SYSTEM  OF  BEE  (magnified  ten  timei). 

A,  Horizontal  section  of  body;  Ip,  labial  palpus;  mar,  maxilla;  e,  eye;  dv,  dv,  dorsal 
vessel;  v,  ventricles  of  the  same;  No.  1,  No.  2,  No.  3,  salivary  gland  systems,  1,  2,  3; 
ce,  oasophagus;  pro.t,  prothorax;  mesa.t,  mesathorax;  meta.t,  metathorax;  g,  g, 
ganglia  of  chief  nerve  chain ;  n,  nerves;  /is,  honey  sac;  p,  petaloid  stopper  of  honey 
sac  or  stomach  mouth;  c.s,  chyle  stomach;  bt,  biliary  or  Malpighian  vessels;  si, 
small  intestine;  I, }  ^nellaeor  gland  plates  of  colon;  /»,  large  intestine. 


ORGANS  AND  PRODUCTS  OF  BEES.  23 

between  the  fifth  and  sixth  abdominal  segments  a  small  canal,  to  which 
he  attributed  an  excretory  function,  and  Zoubareff,  having  noticed  bees 
ejecting  a  watery  substance  while  returning  IVom  the  fields,  suggested 
that  this  gland  probably  served  to  separate  a  portion  of  the  water  from 
the  nectar,  the  liquid  deposited  in  the  cells  appearing  to  contain  less  of  it 
than  that  just  secreted  by  the  flowers.  However  this  may  be,  evapora- 
tion takes  place  rapidly  in  the  heat  of  the  hive  after  the  nectar  or  thin 
honey  lias  been  stored,  as  it  is  temporarily,  in  open  cells.  Besides  being 
thin,  the  nectar  has  at  first  a  raw,  rank  taste,  generally  the  flavor  and  odor 
peculiar  to  the  plant  from  which  gathered,  and  these  are  frequently  far 
from  agreeable.  To  make  from  this  raw  product  the  healthful  and  deli- 
cious table  luxury  which  honey  constitutes — "fit  food  for  the  gods" — 
is  another  of  the  functions  peculiar  to  the  worker  bee.  The  first  step  is 
the  stationing  of  workers  in  lines  near  the  hive  entrances.  These, 
by  incessant  buzzing  of  their  wings,  drive  currents  of  air  into  and 
out  of  the  hive  jind  over  the  comb  surfaces.  If  the  hand  be  held  be- 
fore the  entrance  at  such  a  time  a  strong  current  of  warm  air  may 
be  felt  coming  out.  The  loud  buzzing  heard  at  night  during  the 
summer  time  is  due  to  the  wings  of  workers  engaged  chiefly  in  ripen- 
ing nectar.  Instead  of  being  at  rest,  as  many  suppose,  the  busy  workers 
are  caring  for  the  last  lot  of  gathered  nectar  and  making  room  for 
further  accessions.  This  may  go  on  far  into  the  night,  or  even  all  night, 
to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  the  loudness  and  activity  being  proportion- 
ate to  the  amount  and  thinness  of  the  liquid.  Frequently  the  ripening 
honey  is  removed  from  one  set  of  cells  and  placed  in  others.  This  may 
be  to  gain  the  use  of  certain  combs  for  the  queen,  or  possibly  it  is  merely 
incidental  to  the  manipulation  the  bees  wish  to  give  it.  When,  finally, 
the  process  has  been  completed,  it  is  found  that  the  water  content  has 
usually  been  reduced  to  10  or  12  per  cent,  and  that  the  disagreeable 
odors  and  flavors,  probably  due  to  volatile  oils,  have  also  been  driven 
ott'  in  a  great  measure,  if  not  wholly,  by  the  heat  of  the  hive,  largely 
generated  by  the  bees.  During  the  manipulation  an  antiseptic — formic 
acid— secreted  by  glands  in  the  head  of  the  bee,  and  it  is  also  possible 
other  glandular  secretions,  have  been  added.  The  finished  product  is 
stored  in  waxen  cells  above  and  around  the  brood  nest  and  the  main 
cluster  of  bees,  as  far  from  the  entrance  as  it  can  be  and  still  be  near 
to  the  brood  and  bees.  The  work  of  sealing  with  waxen  caps  then  goes 
forward  rapidly,  the  covering  being  more  or  less  porous. 

Each  kind  of  honey  has  its  distinctive  flavor  and  aroma,  derived,  as 
already  indicated,  mainly  from  the  particular  blossoms  by  which  it  was 
secreted,  but  modified  and  softened  by  the  manipulation  given  it  in  the 
hives.  When  the  secretion  is  abundant  in  a  flower  having  a  short  or 
open  corolla,  hence  one  from  which  the  bees  find  it  easy  to  obtain  the 
honey,  they  will  confine  their  visits  to  that  kind  if  the  latter  is  present 
in  sufficient  numbers.  Thus  it  is  that  linden,  white  clover,  buckwheat, 


24  MANUAL    OF    APICULTURE. 

white  sage,  mesquite,  sourwood,  aster,  tulip  tree,  mangrove,  orange,  and 
other  kinds  of  honey  may  be  harvested  separately,  and  cadi  be  readily 
recognizable  by  its  color,  flavor,  consistency,  and  aroma.  When,  how- 
ever, no  great  honey  yielder  is  present  in  large  quantity  and  the  source  is 
miscellaneous,  all  manner  of  combinations  of  qualities  may  exist,  intro- 
ducing great  and  often  agreeable  variety.  Thus  the  medicinal  qualities 
and  the  food  value  of  different  kinds  of  honey  differ  as  greatly  as  do 
their  prices  on  the  market. 

PROPOLIS. 

This  substance,  commonly  known  as  "bee  glue,"  is  obtained  by  the 
bees  from  the  buds  and  crevices  of  trees,  and  is  carried  to  the  hives  in 
the  corbicula  or  basket-like  cavities  on  the  outside  of  the  tibial  joints 
of  the  workers'  hind  legs,  the  same  as  they  carry  pollen.  The  workers 
with  their  mandibles  scrape  together  and  bite  off'  the  particles  of  pro- 
polis, and  with  the  front  and  middle  legs  pass  them  back  to  the  baskets, 
where  the  middle  legs  and  feet  are  used  to  tamp  them  down.  The 
pellets  can  be  readily  distinguished  from  those  of  pollen,  the  latter 
being  dull  and  granular  in  appearance,  while  the  freshly  gathered 
propolis  is  compact  and  shiny.  This  resinous  material,  which  becomes 
hard  soon  after  it  is  gathered,  is  at  first  quite  sticky,  and  the  bee  bring- 
ing it  requires  aid  in  unloading.  Another  worker  takes  hold  of  the 
mass  with  its  jaws,  and  by  united  exertion  they  get  it  out  of  the  pocket, 
though  often  by  piecemeal  and  in  long  threads.  It  is  not  stored  in  cells, 
but  is  used  at  once  to  stop  up  crevices  in  the  hives  and  to  varnish  the 
whole  interior  surface,  as  well  as  to  glue  movable  portions  fast,  also  in 
strengthening  the  combs  at  their  attachments,  and  if  the  latter  are 
designed  exclusively  for  honey,  and  especially  if  not  filled  at  once,  the 
edges  of  their  completed  cells  receive  a  thin  coating  of  propolis,  which 
adds  considerably  to  their  strength.  The  bees  often  make  the  flight 
hole  smaller  by  filling  a  part  of  it  with  masses  of  propolis,  sometimes 
mixed  with  old  wax.  Carniolans  gather  the  least  and  Tunisians  the 
most  propolis  of  any  of  the  different  races.  On  this  account  the  former 
are  better  suited  than  the  latter  to  the  production  of  fancy  white 
comb  honey. 

BEE   POISON    AND   THE    STING. 

The  worker  and  the  queen  are  supplied  with  another  organ  which  is 
of  great  importance  to  them,  namely,  the  sting;  for  without  this  the 
hard-earned  stores  of  the  hive  would  soon  be  a  prey  to  all  manner  of 
marauders,  and  the  queen  would  be  deprived  of  an  organ  of  occasional 
use  to  her  in  dispatching  rivals,  and  of  daily  use  to  her  during  the 
working  season  in  the  deposition  of  eggs.  The  darts  work  independ- 
ently and  alternately,  and  are  connected  at  the  base  with  the  poison 
sac,  without  whose  powerful  contents  such  a  tiny  weapon  would  be 
wholly  ineffective.  Poison  glands  pour  an  acid  secretion — largely 
formic  acid — into  this  sac,  whence  it  is  conveyed  to  the  tip  of  the  sting 


ORGANS  AND  PRODUCTS  OF  BEES.  25 

along  the  groove  or  canal  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  sheath  and  the 
darts.  The  sting  being  but  an  ovipositor  modified  to  serve  also  another 
purpose  in  addition  to  ovipositiou,  in  the  perfect  female  (the  queen)  its 
main  use  is  in  placing  the  eggs  in  their  proper  position  in  the  bottoms 
of  the  cells. 

Formic  acid  is  known  to  have  considerable  antiseptic  properties. 
Chemical  tests  show  its  presence  in  well-ripened  honey,  but  not  in 
freshly  gathered  nectar.  The  natural  conclusion  is  that  it  has  been 
added  by  the  bees  to  assist  in  the  preservation  of  the  honey.  In  what 
manner  it  is  supplied  has  frequently  been  questioned.  Tests  applied 
to  the  blood  of  the  bee  show  its  presence  there,  and  the  secretions  of 
the  head  glands  show  still  larger  quantities.  It  is  therefore  reasonable 
to  suppose  that  these  glands,  as  well  as  the  poison  glands  themselves, 
secrete  formic  acid,  and  that  the  honey  receives  its  portion  from  the 
former,  the  head  glands,  upon  being  disgorged  from  the  honey-sac  or 
during  the  manipulation  to  which  it  is  subjected  in  the  hive. 

WATER. 

During  cold  or  cool  weather  much  condensation  of  moisture  takes 
place  in  wooden  hives  as  these  are  usually  arranged.  The  water,  col- 
lecting in  drops  on  the  interior  walls  of  the  hive  and  on  the  cold,  sealed 
houey^  often  trickles  down  over  the  cluster  of  bees,  to  their  great 
injury.  It  has  been  claimed  that  when  brood  rearing  begins  this  con- 
densed moisture  will  be  utilized  in  the  preparation  of  brood  food. 
Very  possibly  it  may,  yet  its  use  is  probably  detrimental,  since  it  is 
charged  with  waste  products  of  the  hive — those  of  respiration,  etc.  In 
its  absence  the  water  contained  in  the  honey,  if  the  latter  has  not  gran- 
ulated, seems  to  be  sufficient.  Later,  however,  when  no  condensation 
takes  place  in  the  hive  and  the  greater  number  of  developing  larvae 
require  considerable  supplies  of  water  in  their  food,  special  trips  are 
made  to  brooks  and  pools  for  it,  and  dew  is  often  gathered  from  leaves. 

SILK.  - 

The  larval  bee  produces  a  small  amount  of  silk  from  glands  in  its 
head.  The  pupal  cell  is  partially  lined  with  this.  Later,  as  the  bee 
develops,  there  being  no  further  use  for  the  glands,  they  become 
atrophied. 

WAX. 

The  light-colored  pellets  which  are  carried  into  the  hive  on  the  hind 
legs  of  the  workers,  and  which  have  been  described  as  pollen,  are  often 
mistaken  for  wax.  The  fact  is,  wax  is  not  gathered  in  the  form  in 
which  we  see  it,  except  in  rare  instances,  when,  bits  of  comb  having 
been  left  about,  small  quantities  will  be  loaded  up  and  taken  in  as 
pellets  on  the  legs.  Ordinarily  it  comes  into  the  hive  in  the  shape  of 
honey  and  is  transformed  by  the  workers  within  their  own  bodies  into 
wax.  This  production  is  wholly  confined  to  the  workers,  for  although 


26 


MANUAL    OF    APICULTURE. 


the  queen  has  wax  plates  on  the  underside  of  the  abdomen  and  wax 
glands  beneath  them,  yet  both  are  less  developed  than  in  the  workers 
and'  are  never  used.  The  wax  plates  of  the  worker  overlying  the 
secreting  glands  are  well  shown  in  fig.  0.  those  of  the  queen  and  of 
the  related  genera,  Bombus  and  Melipona,  being  shown  for  comparison. 
During  wax  secretion,  that  is,  when  combs  are  being  built  or  honey 
cells  sealed  over,  a  high  temperature  is  maintained  in  the  hive,  and 
many  workers  may  be  seen  to  have  small  scales  of  wax  protruding 
from  between  the  segments  of  the  abdomen  on  the  underside.  The 
molds  or  plates,  eight  in  number,  in  which  the  scales  appear  are  con- 
cealed by  the  overlapping  of  the  abdominal  segments,  but  when 
exposed  to  view  (fig.  9,  a)  are  seen  to  be  five-sided  depressions  lined 
with  a  transparent  membrane.  The  wax  glands  themselves  are  beneath 
this  membrane,  and  through  it  the  wax  comes  in  a  liquid  form.  As  the 
scales  harden  they  arc  pushed  out  by  the  addition  of  wax  beneath. 


c 


FIG.  9. — Wax  disks  of  social  bees :  a,  Apis  mellifera  worker;  6,  A.melliferaqueen;  c,  Melipona  worker; 
d,  Bombus  worker — all  eularged.     (From  Insect  Life.) 

The  bees  pluck  them  out  with  neat  pincers  (fig.  7,  a  and  b)  formed  by 
the  articulation  of  the  hind  tibiae  with  the  adjacent  tarsal  joints,  pass 
them  forward  to  the  mandibles,  and  mold  them  into  the  shape  of  hex- 
agonal cells,  meanwhile  warming  and  moistening  them  with  the  secre- 
tions of  the  head 'glands  to  render  the  wax  more  pliable. 

COMBS. 

Wax  is  fashioned  by  the  workers  into  cells  of  various  sizes  and  shapes, 
according  to  the  use  to  be  made  of  them.  The  most  regular  in  shape 
and  size  are  the  cells  designed  for  brood  (fig.  4).  These  combs  in  which 
workers  are  bred  show  nearly  29  cells  on  a  square  inch  of  surface,  the 
combs  being  seven-eighths  inch  thick  and  the  cells  generally  quite 
regular  hexagons  in  outline.  Drone  cells  are  larger,  there  being  but  18 
of  them  to  the  square  inch  of  surface,  and  the  comb  is  1£  inches  thick. 


COMB    BUILDING.  27 

The  cells  of  combs  designed  only  for  honey  are  frequently  more  irreg- 
ular in  shape,  generally  curve  upward  somewhat,  and  are  often  deep- 
ened as  the  honey  is  stored  in  them,  so  that  these  combs  sometimes 
reach  a  thickness  of  2  or  3  inches. 

The  cells  in  which  queens  are  bred  bear  in  size  and  shape  some 
resemblance  to  a  ground  or  pea  nut.  They  are  often  irregular  in  form, 
being  sometimes  curved,  or  short  and  thick,  according  to  the  space 
below  their  point  of  attachment,  which  is  most  frequently  the  lower 
edge  or  the  side  edge  of  a  comb,  or  sometimes  a  mere  projection  or 
angularity  in  the  general  surface  of  a  comb.  Queen  cells  open  down- 
ward instead  of  being  built  horizontally  like  drone  and  worker  cells 
(figs.  62  and  G3). 

Into  the  material  used  in  constructing  brood  combs  bees  often  incor- 
porate bits  of  wax  and  fiber-like  gnawings  of  cocoons  from  old  combs 
in  which  brood  has  been  reared,  and  if  given  cappings  or  trimmings  of 
combs  they  will  work  them  all  over  and  utilize  most  of  the  material. 


PIG.  10 — Comb  building— side  of  hive  removed.      (Original.) 

Also  when  the  bees  have  abundant  supplies  of  pollen  much  of  this  is 
incorporated  into  the  material  of  brood  combs,  thus  saving  the  costlier 
substance — wax.  Such  combs  show  at  once  by  their  brownish  or  straw 
color,  even  when  first  constructed,  that  they  are  not  made  of  wax 
alone.  It  will  readily  be  seen  from  the  above  that  the  quantity  of 
honey  consumed  by  the  bees  in  producing  a  pound  of  comb  must  vary 
greatly,  for  if  the  comb  is  designed  for  surplus  honey  it  will  be  made 
of  newly  secreted  wax,  while  if  for  brood  other  material  will,  as  just 
stated,  replace  a  portion  of  the  wax.  The  amount  of  honey  coming  in 
varies  from  day  to  day,  and  it  is  difficult  to  estimate  how  much  is  con- 
sumed in  feeding  and  keeping  warm  the  brood;  moreover,  a  high  tem- 
perature is  required  in  the  hive  to  facilitate  the  secretion  and  working 
of  wax,  necessitating,  of  course,  extra  food  consumption  when  the  out- 


28 


MANUAL    OF   APICULTURE. 


side  temperature  is  low.  Accordingly  estimates  as  to  the  amount  of 
honey  required  to  produce  1  pound  of  comb  range  from  5  pounds  to  25 
pounds.  More  accurate  experiments  are  needed  in  this  direction  before 
anything  positive  can  be  stated.  Until  then  18  to  20  pounds  might  be 
looked  upon  as  nearest  the  correct  figure  for  white  surplus  combs,  and 
half  as  much  for  dull  straw-colored  or  brownish  combs  built  for  brood 
rearing. 

DEVELOPMENT   OF   BROOD. 

Ordinarily  the  winter  cluster  in  a  hive  of  bees  occupies  the  more  cen- 
tral combs,  four  or  five  in  number.  Near  the  middle  of  this  cluster  the 
queen  deposits  the  first  eggs  of  the  season  (which  are  fertilized  eggs)  in 
the  small-sized  or  worker  cells.  Under  favorable  circumstances,  that 
is,  in  a  strong  colony  amply  protected  against  inclement  weather,  this 
deposition  usually  occurs  in  January,  though  in  a  very  mild  climate  some 
brood  is  generally  present  during  every  month  of  the  year,  and  the  cessa- 
tion of  egg-laying  is  very  short.  The  eggs  hatch  on  the  third  day  after 
deposition  into  minute  white  larvae,  to  which  the  workers  supply  food 
in  abundance.  The  composition  of  this  food  has  been  the  subject  of 
much  attention  and  more  theorizing.  It  may  be  considered  as  pretty 
certain  that  during  the  first  three  days  of  the  life  of  the  larva  its  food 
is  a  secretion  from  glands  located  in  the  heads  of  the  adult  work- 
ers— a  sort  of  bee  milk,  to  which,  after  the  third  day,  honey  is  added 
in  the  case  of  the  .worker  larvae,  and  honey  and  pollen  in  the  case  of 
drone  larvae.  As  this  weaning  proceeds  both  worker  and  drone  larvae 
receive  pollen,  and  in  constantly  increasing  proportions,  in  place  of  the 
secretion.  But  this  rich  albuminous  substance  is  continued  to  the 
queen  larvae  throughout  their  whole  period  of  feeding;  moreover,  the 
quantity  of  this  food  supplied  to  each  queen  larva  is  apparently  super- 
abundant, for  after  it  ceases  to  feed  quite  a  mass  of  the  food  somewhat 
dried  out  will  be  found  in  the  bottom  of  the  cell  from,  which  a  well- 
developed  queen  has  issued.  After  assuming  the  pupa  form  the  young 
queen  is  attached  to  this  food  by  means  of  the  tip  of  the  abdomen,  and 
it  very  likely  continues  for  some  time  to  receive  nourishment  from  the 
mass. 

The  following  table  shows  approximately  the  time  occupied  in  the 
development  of  worker,  drone,  and  queen : 


Queen  . . 
Worker 
Drone  . . 


Days. 

3 
3 


Larva. 


Days. 

5 

G 


Pupa. 

From  deposi- 
tion of  egg 
to  imago. 

"*S 

g 

Days. 
15J 
21 

24 

The  original  circles  of  brood  are  gradually  increased  by  the  deposition 
of  eggs  in  the  cells  next  outside  those  already  occupied,  and  circles  are 
soon  begun  in  the  adjoining  combs.  In  this  way  the  space  occupied  by 


IUNJVERS 


DEVELOPMENT   OF   BROOD. 


29 


the  developing  bees  is  gradually  increased,  while  preserving  the  gen- 
eral spherical  shape  of  the  brood  nest  thus  formed,  which,  however,  the 
shape  of  the  hive  often  modifies  somewhat.  As  already  mentioned,  each 
circle  of  brood  has  rows  of  pollen  cells  about  it,  chiefly  above  and  at  the 
sides,  and  the  combs  on  either  side  contiguous  to  the  brood  are  usually 
well  packed  with  pollen.  Outside  of  the  pollen  most  of  the  honey  on 
hand  is  stored.  Thus  (fig.  11)  a  cross  section  made  in  any  direction 
through  the  middle  of  a  hive  in  normal  condition  at  the  opening  of  the 
active  season  should  show  this  relative  arrangement  of  brood,  pollen, 
and  honey,  which  economizes  most  the  heat  of  the  hive  and  the  labors  of 
the  nurse  bees,  favoring  in  this  way  the  rapid  increase  of  the  population. 

THE   WORKER. 

The  worker  larvae  are  fed  five  days,  and  then  the  cell  is  given  by  the 
adult  bees  a  covering  which  is  quite  porous  by  reason  of  numerous 


FIG.  11  .-Cross  section  of  brood  apartment:    s,  *,  uides  of  hive;    t,  t,  top-bars  of  frames;   h,  p,  I  sb, 
combs  containing  (h)  honey,  (p)  pollen,  (I)  larvae  and  eggs,  and  (sb)  sealed  brood.     (Original.) 

pillen  grains  incorporated  into  its  mass,  this  openness  of  texture  being 
necessary  to  give  the  developing  bee  air  to  breathe.  The  larva  strength- 
ens this  capping  by  a  loose  webwork  of  silk  within,  extending  down  the 
side  but  slightly  and  attached  at  its  edges  to  the  last  skin  cast  by  the 
molting  larva,  This  skin,  extremely  delicate  and  pressed  closely  against 
the  inside  of  the  cell,  forms  the  lining  of  its  sides  and  bottom.  In 
about  twelve  days  after  sealing,  that  is,  twenty-one  days  from  the  time 
the  egg  was  deposited,  the  imago,  or  perfect  bee,  bites  its  way  through 
•  the  brown  covering. 

In  the  course  of  a  couple  of  days  it  takes  up  the  work  of  a  nurse,  and 
in  a  week  to  ten  days  may  appear  at  the  entrance  on  pleasant  days, 
taking,  however,  but  short  flights  for  exercise,  as  ordinary  field  work  is 
3407_No.  1—05 3 


30  MANUAL    OF  APICULTURE. 

not  undertaken  until  it  lias  passed  about  two  weeks  in  the  care  of 
brood.  The  worker  then  takes  up  also  wax  secretion,  if  honey  is  to  be 
capped  over  or  combs  built,  although  old  bees  can  and  do  to  a  certain 
extent  engage  in  wax  production. 

THE   DRONE. 

Eggs  left  unfertilized  produce  drones  and  require  twenty-four  days 
from  the  time  they  are  deposited  until  the  perfect  insect  appears.  They 
are  normally  deposited  in  the  larger-sized  horizontal  cells,  and  when 
the  latter  are  sealed,  the  capping  is  more  convex  as  well  as  lighter-colored 
than  that  of  worker  brood,  which  is  brown  and  nearly  flat. 

The  fact  that  drones  develop  from  unfertilized  eggs  is  to  be  noted  as 
having  an  important  practical  bearing  in  connection  with  the  intro- 
duction of  new  strains  of  a  given  race  or  of  new  races  of  bees  into  an 
apiary.  From  a  single  choice  home-bred  or  imported  mother,  young 
queens  of  undoubted  purity  of  blood  may  b«  reared  for  all  of  the  colo- 
nies of  the  apiary,  and  since  the  mating  of  these  young  queens  does 
not  aifect  their  drone  progeny,  thereafter  only  drones  of  the  desired 
strain  or  race  and  pure  in  blood  will  be  produced,  rendering,  therefore, 
the  pure  mating  of  future  rearings  fairly  certain  if  other  bees  are  not 
numerous  within  a  mile  or  two.  Eventually  also  all  of  the  colonies 
will  be  changed  to  the  new  race  and  without  admixture  of  impure 
blood,  provided  always  that  the  young  queens  be  reared  from  mothers 
of  pure  blood  mated  to  drones  of  equal  purity,, 


CHAPTER  III. 


QUIETING  AND  MANIPULATING  BEES. 

The  demeanor  of  bees  toward  an  individual  depends  largely  upon  his 
bearing  and  treatment  of  them.  Laugstroth,  in  his  excellent  treatise, 
Langstroth  on  the  Honey  Bee  (p.  193,  revised  edition),  says: 

Let  all  your  motions  about  your  hives  be  gentle  and  slow;  never  crush  or  injure 
the  bees;  acquaint  yourself  fully  with  the  principles  of  management,  and  you  will 
find  you  have  little  more  reason  to  dread  the  sting  of  a  bee  than  the  horns  of  a 
favorite  cow  or  the  heels  of  your  faithful  horse. 

Most  bee  manipulators,  however,  grow  somewhat  indifferent  to  stings, 
since  in  time  they  become 
so  inoculated  with  the  poi- 
son of  the  bee  that  the  pain 
of  the  sting  is  less  severe 
and  the  swelling  slight. 
But  to  avoid  the  stings  is, 
with  some  of  the  races  more 
recently  introduced  into  this 
country,  simply  a  question 
of  care  in  manipulation  and 
a  free  use  of  smoke.  It  is 
not  meant  that  the  bees 
should  be  stupefied  with 
smoke,  but  merely  alarmed 
and  subjugated,  and  when- 
ever they  show  any  dispo- 
sition to  act  on  the  offen- 
sive recourse  is  to  be  had 
to  smoke.  It  is  not  neces- 
sary that  the  smoke  should 
be  from  a  particular  source, 
but  that  from  certain  sub- 
stances, as  tobacco,  subju- 
gates them  more  quickly, 

while  burning  puffball  stupefies  them  for  the  time.  There  are  some 
objections  to  these  substances  which  do  not  apply  to  wood,  either  par- 
tially decayed  or  sound,  and  as  the  latter  when  in  a  good  smoker  holds 
fire  best  and  is  very  effective,  it  is  advisable  to  keep  a  good  supply  at 
hand.  Seasoned  hickory  or  hard  maple  are  best,  though  beech,  soft 

31 


FIG.  12.— TJse  of  veil  and  bee  smoker.     (Original.) 


32 


MANUAL    OF    APICULTURE. 


rnaple,  etc.,  are  good.  The  most  improved  bellows  smokers,  when  sup- 
plied with  such  fuel  sawed  5  or  G  inches  long  and  split  into  bits  a  half 
inch  or  less  in  si/e,  will  burn  all  day  and  be  ready  at  any  time  to  give 
a  good  volume  of  blue  smoke,  by  which  bees  of  most  of  the  races  now 
cultivated  in  this  country  are  subdued  at  once. 

With  Italian  or  black  bees  n,  puff  or  two  of  smoke  should  be  given 
at  the  hive  entrance  and  the  cover  and  honey  board,  or  quilt,  removed 
slowly  and  carefully,  smoke  being  driven  in  as  soon  as  the  least  opening 
is  made  and  the  volume  increased  enough  to  keep  down  all  bees  as  fast 
as  the  covering  is  removed.  The  smoker  may  then  be  placed  on  the  wind- 
ward side  of  the  hive  to 
allow  the  fumes  to  pass 
over  the  top  and  toward 
the  operator.  The  frames 
may  then  be  gently  pried 
loose  and  lifted  out  care- 
fully, without  crushing  a 
bee  if  it  can  be  avoided. 
Crushing  bees  fills  the  air 
with  the  odor  of  poison, 
which  irritates  the  bees. 
So  also  when  one  bee  is 
provoked  to  sting  others 
follow  because  of  the  odor 
of  poison. 

Too  much  smoke  will 
often  render  certain  ma- 
_  nipulations  difficult;  for 
example,  when  queens  are 
to  be  sought  out,  or  nuclei 
or  artificial  swarms  made, 
volumes  of  smoke  blown 
i-  in  between  the  combs  will 
drive  the  bees  from  them 
so  that  they  will  cluster  in  clumps  on  the  bottoms  of  the  frames  or  in 
the  corners  of  the  hives.  A  little  observation  and  judgment  will  enable 
one  to  know  when  the  bees  need  smoke  and  how  much  of  it  to  prevent 
any  outbreak  on  their  part,  which  it  is  always  best  to  forestall  rather 
than  be  obliged  to  quell  after  it  is  fully  under  way. 

The  frame  hive  as  now  made — with  metal  rabbets  and  arrangements 
for  surplus  honey,  and  quilts  instead  of  honey  boards — reduces  propo- 
lization  to  a  minimum  and  renders  the  danger  of  irritating  the  bees  by 
jarring  when  manipulating  much  less.  As  a  prerequisite  to  rapid  and 
safe  manipulation  perfectly  (straight  combs  are  necessary. 

With  the  common  or  black  bees  it  is  never  safe  to  do  without  the  veil 
as  a  protection  to  the  face,  and  with  these  bees  it  will  also  be  very  diffi- 


FlO.  13.—  Manipulation — removing  comb  from  liivo. 
nal.) 


MANIPULATION   OF   COMBS. 


33 


cult  to  avoid  stings  on  the  hands  unless  considerable  smoke  has  been 
driven  into  the  entrance  beforehand  and 
time  has  been  given  the  bees  to  get  well 
filled  with  honey  before  the  hive  is 
opened  5  even  then  frequent  recourse  to 
smoke  will  generally  be  necessary. 
Blacks  are  by  far  the  most  troublesome 
of  all  races  about  flying  from  their  hive 
entrances  to  sting  in  an  unprovoked 
manner.  Next  to  these  are  the  crosses 
containing  the  blood  of  theblacks.  Ital- 
ians have  much  less  of  this  disposition, 
and  Oarniolansaud  Cyprians  rarely,  the 
latter  almost  never,  fly  iroin  their  hive 
entrances  to  attack  unless  their  hives 
have  been  disturbed.  Pure  Cyprians 


FIG.  14. — Manipulation — tilting  to  bring  re- 
verse side  of  comb  in  view.     (Original.) 


can  generally  be  handled  without  the  use  of  the  bee  veil  by  skillful  bee 

manipulators  who  understand  the  qualities  of 
the  race.  Much  of  the  work  among  pure  Ital- 
ians can  be  done  without  a  veil  after  one  has 
gained  experience  in  manipulation.  During 
four  years'  residence  in  Carniola  the  writer, 
manipulating  annually  several  hundred  col- 
onies of  bees,  never  had  occasion  to  employ  a 
bee  veil.  If  no  bees  but  gray  Carniolans  of 
pure  blood  are  in  the  apiary  and  some  smoke 
is  used  a  veil  will  never  be  necessary.  They 
may  be  handled  in  all  kinds  of  weather,  early 
and  late,  even  during  the  night,  yet  with  but 
a  small  part  of  the  risk  which  attends  the 

Fi«*.  lo.-Mampulatiou-reverse  side    manipulatioil  of  Other  raCCS.      Nor  Will  it  be 

of   comb  brought  to  view.     (Oug-  _ 

Li.)  necessary  to  deluge  them  with  smoke  from 

time  to  time,  as  one  is  obliged  to  do  with  blacks.  To  dispense  entirety 
with  the  bee  veil  is  a  more  important  con- 
sideration, especially  to  the  professional 
beemaster,  than  is  at  first  apparent  to 
the  inexperienced.  Its  use  injures  the 
eyesight  seriously,  especially  where  one 
is  obliged  to  strain  his  eyes  for  hours  to 
see  eggs,  larvae,  etc.,  in  the  cells,  to  hunt 
out  queens  and  queen  cells,  and  adjust 
frames.  Besides  this,  the  hindrance  to 
rapid  work  which  the  veil  causes,  as 


u  ell  as  the  great  discomfort  in  wearing 

it  for  hours  during  hot  weather,  are    FIQ    16i_Mailipulation_exaiuimng 

Considerations  WOrth  Weighing.  Terse  side  of  comb.    (Original.) 


34 


MANUAL    OF   APICULTURE. 


To  recapitulate:  To  secure  easy,  rapid,  and  safe  manipulation  accu- 
rately made  Lives,  with  the  frames,  if  hanging,  arranged  to  rest  on 
folded  metal  rabbets,  and  the  combs  perfectly  straight,  are  essential. 
It  is  equally  important  also  that  some  one  of  the  gentler  races  be  kept 


FIG.  17. — Quiiiby  closed-end  frames.     (From  ABC  of  Bee  Culture.; 

Furthermore,  a  good  bee  smoker  fed  with  dry  fuel  is  necessary,  while 
the  bee  escape  to  clear  supers  without  manipulation  of  combs  is  a  great 
help.  Quilts,  queen  excluders,  and  bee  escapes  reduce  the  amount  of 
manipulation  required,  and  at  the  same  time  facilitate  what  is  abso- 
lutely necessary. 

In  general,  the  best  time  to  manipulate  hives  is  when  most  of  the 
bees  are  busy  in  the  fields.  The  young  bees  left  at  home  are  most  easily 
controlled  and  the  old  ones  returning  are  generally  laden. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

ESTABLISHING  AN  APIARY:  TIME— SELECTING  HIVES  OF  BEES- 
MOVING  BEES— SELECTION  OF  SITE. 

Spring  is  the  best  season  to  establish  an  apiary,  especially  for  a  per- 
son unacquainted  with  the  practical  care  of  bees.  Colonies  in  good 
condition  procured  then  are  more  easily  kept  in  order  by  the  novice  than 
if  purchased  in  the  fall.  Mistakes  in  management  may  possibly  be  rem- 
edied before  the  season  closes,  and  by  the  time  it  is  necessary  to  pre- 
pare for  the  winter  the  learner  will  have  gained  a  certain  amount  of 
practical  knowledge  of  the  nature  and  requirements  of  the  bees.  If 
the  start  be  made  late  in  the  season  mistakes,  if  they  occur,  may  result 
fatally  before  the  proper  remedy  can  be  applied. 

The  beginner  had  better  obtain  his  start  by  purchasing  one  or  two 
colonies  of  pure  Italian  or  Carniolau  bees  in  accurately  made  frame 
hives  and  in  first-class  condition.  These  he  should  get  from  some  bee- 
master  of  repute  near  his  own  place,  if  possible,  in  order  to  avoid 
expressage  and  possible  damage  through  long  confinement  or  numerous 
transfers.  The  cost  per  colony  may  be  $6  to  $8;  yet  bees  at  this  price 
will  generally  be  found  much  cheaper  in  the  end,  for,  though  common 
bees  in  box  hives  may  frequently  be  obtained  for  half  or  even  less  than 
half  as  much,  the  cost,  when  finally  transferred  into  frame  hives,  fitted 
up  with  straight  combs,  and  the  common  queens  replaced  by  Italians 
or  Carniolans,  will  not  be  less.  The  possession  of  a  colony  already  in 
prime  working  order  gives  the  novice  a  standard  with  which  to  com- 
pare all  others  and  often  enables  him  to  avoid  costly  experiments. 
Another  plan,  also  commendable,  is  to  agree  with  some  neighboring 
bee  keeper  to  deliver  as  many  first  swarms  on  the  day  they  issue  as  are 
wanted.  These  will  give  the  right  start  if  placed  as  soon  as  received 
in  hives  with  foundation  starters  and  the  frames  properly  spaced — 1| 
inches  from  center  to  center,  it  being  understood  that  the  swarms  are 
early  and  prime  ones,  with  vigorous  queens.  Only  those  issuing  from 
colonies  that  have  swarmed  the  year  before  or  from  such  as  were  them- 
selves second  swarms  of  the  previous  year  should  be  accepted.  Swarms 
from  these  will  have  queens  not  over  one  year  old.  It  is  better  to  have 
queens  of  the  current  year's  raising,  but  these  can  only  be  obtained  by 
taking  the  second  or  third  swarms  from  a  given  hive,  which  come  Inter 
and  are  smaller,  or  by  substituting  young  queens  for  those  which  come 
with  the  swarms. 

SELECTION   OF   STOCKS. 

The  relative  strength  of  different  stocks  may  be  determined  by 
watching  the  flight  of  the  bees.  The  playing  of  the  young  bees  in 
front  of  the  hive  is  apt  to  deceive  one.  This  lasts  but  twenty  minutes 

35 


36  MANUAL   OF   APICULTURE. 

or  so,  but  a  weak  stock  compared  then  with  a  strong  one  whose  young 
bees  are  not  flying  might  be  regarded  as  very  populous.  The  young  bees 
sporting  in  front  of  the  hive  may  be  known  by  their  light,  fuzzy  appear- 
ance, and  by  the  fact  that  as  they  take  wing  to  leave  the  hive  they  turn 
their  heads  toward  the  entrance  and  sail  about  it  in  semicircles,  fre- 
quently alighting  on  the  flight  board  and  taking  wing  again.  They  are 
thus  marking  the  location  of  the  hive  so  as  to  be  able  to  return 'to  it, 
for  an  attempt  to  enter  another  hive  might  result  fatally  to  them.  They 
finally  fly  away  in  constantly  widening  circles.  Field  workers  used  to 
the  location  fly  in  a  direct  line  away  from  the  hive.  When  the  young 
bees  return  they  do  not  alight  at  once  as  do  the  field  workers  laden 
with  honey,  but  generally  hover  about  the  entrance  until  certain  they 
have  reached  the  right  hive.  Having  noted  by  their  flight  which  stocks 
seem  to  have  the  most  bees,  a  closer  examination  can  be  made  by  blow- 
ing a  little  smoke  of  any  sort  into  the  entrances  and  tipping  the  hives 
back,  if  they  stand  on  loose  bottom  boards.  When  not  so  constructed 
the  examination  must,  of  course,  be  made  by  removing  the  top  covering, 
or  if  the  combs  are  built  in  frames,  some  of  these. 

In  addition  to  the  strength  of  the  colony,  the  number  of  combs  con- 
taining brood,  straightness,  kind  and  age  of  combs,  amount  of  honey 
on  hand,  the  cleanliness  and  healthfulness  of  the  colony  are  points 
upon  which  full  information  is  desirable.  In  April  a  good  colony 
located  in  a  central  latitude  ought  to  have,  brood  in  five  or  six  combs; 
yet  as  ordinarily  wintered  it  will  be  difficult  to  find  colonies  having 
at  this  time  more  than  three  or  four  combs  containing  brood.  The 
combs  should  be  straight,  so  that  if  in  an  old-fashioned  box  hive  they 
can  be  cut  out  and  fitted  without  great  waste  into  frames,  and  if  the 
hive  is  a  frame  one  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  have  combs  straight 
and  built  wholly  within  the  frames  in  order  that  the  latter  may  be  read- 
ily removed  and  returned  to  the  hive.  The  less  drone  comb  the  better. 
There  will  always  be  enough,  an  area  half  the  size  of  a  man's  hand 
being  quite  sufficient  for  each  hive.  The  larger  size  of  the  drone  cells 
and  greater  thickness  of  the  combs  (1J  inches)  will  make  it  readily  recog- 
nizable. If  over  one-eighth  of  the  surface  is  drone  comb  the  colony 
should  be  rejected.  If  the  combs  are  so  old  as  to  be  nearly  black  and 
to  show  cell  walls  much  thickened  they  are  very  objectionable.  There 
should  be  several  pounds  of  sealed  honey  in  each  hive  in  early  spring. 
Other  things  being  equal,  those  stocks  which  come  through  the  winter 
with  20  pounds  or  so  of  sealed  honey  in  the  combs  will  develop  much 
faster  than  those  having  just  enough  to  last  them  until  they  gather 
fresh  honey  rapidly  enough  to  supply  their  daily  needs.  The  presence 
of  an  abundance  gives  the  bees  courage.  They  do  not  fear  to  draw  upon 
their  stores  to  supply  the  young  that  are  fast  developing.  The  combs 
filled  with  honey  part  with  their  heat  only  slowly  when  the  outside  tem- 
perature falls,  and  there  is  thus  less  danger  of  a  check  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  brood  through  too  low  temperature  in  the  hive. 


SELECTING    AND    MOVING    BEES. 


37 


If  the  surfaces  of  the  combs,  the  frames,  or  the  inner  walls  of  the  hive 
are  spotted  with  a  brown,  crumbly  looking  substance,  it  is  an  evidence 
that  the  bees  have  had  diarrhea  during  the  winter  or  spring,  and  if  they 
have  been  badly  affected  not  only  will  the  combs  and  the  whole  interior 
of  the  hive  be  soiled,  the  former  perhaps 
so  as  to  be  rendered  almost  worthless,  but 
the  bees  will  lack  vitality,  and  will  soon 
dwindle  in  numbers,  not  being  able  to  sur- 
vive the  first  arduous  labors  of  the  open- 
ing of  the  season.  It  is  not  always  easy 
to  determine  whether  a  stock  in  a  box  hive 
is  affected  with  foul  brood  or  not,  for  the 
odor  of  decaying  brood  is  not  of  itself 
sufficient  to  warrant  such  a  conclusion, 
although  it  is  well  to  reject  any  hive  hav 
ing  any  putrid  odor  about  it.  The  natural 
odor  of  the  hive,  produced  as  it  is  largely 

by  honey,  Wax,  pollen,  and  propolis,  is  not  FlG-  IS— Box  Live  prepared  for  trans- 

i  portation.     (Original.) 

unpleasant  to  most  people,   so  that  the 

presence  of  any  disagreeable  odor  should  arouse  suspicion.  If  larvae 
that  have  turned  black  are  seen  in  the  cells,  and  the  capping  of  the 
sealed  brood  is  sunken  and  in  some  instances  perforated,  showing 
brown  and  ropy  contents  in  the  bottoms  of  the  cells,  and  tire  putrid 
odor  is  present,  the  existence  of  foul  brood  (Bacillus  alvei  Cheshire)  is 
pretty  certain.  This  is  a  scourge  much  to  be  dreaded.  Not  only 
should  no  hives  or  colonies  be  purchased  from  the  same  apiary,  but 

none  in  the  vicinity  of  an 
apiary  so  affected. 

MOVING  BEES. 

In  moving  bees  the  box 
hives  should  be  turned  bot- 
tom upward,  th"  bees  driven" 
back  by  blowing  a  little 
smoke  on  them,  and  a  few 
loose  rolls  of  rags  laid  across 
the  lower  edges  of  the  combs 
in  such  a  manner  that  a 
piece  of  sheeting,  sacking, 
or  preferably  cheese  cloth  or 

FIG.  19.-Frame  hive  prepared  for  transportation.    (Orig.)     othep  open   material  may  be 

tied  over  the  whole  lower  end  and  drawn  tightly,  so  as  to  press 
the  rolls  against  the  combs  and  hold  them  in  place.  It  is  even 
well  to  tack  strips  of  lath  outside  of  the  covering,  so  placed  that 
they  will  cross  the  rolls  of  rags  and  press  the  latter  more  firmly  against 
the  lower  edges  of  the  combs.  Strips  may  also  be  tacked  around  the 


38 


MANUAL    OF   APICULTURE. 


lower  edges  of  the  hive  to  hold  the  cloth  in  place,  or  it  maybe  fastened 
by  winding  with  strong  cord.  The  bees  should  be  thus  prepared  as 
late  in  the  day  as  possible,  care  being  taken  that  none  escape,  and  at 
dusk  stood  bottom  upward  in  a  spring  conveyance  or  on  straw  or  hay 
several  inches  deep  in  the  box  of  a  wagon,  with  straw  packed  between 
and  around  the  hives.  It  is  advisable  to  drive  slowly,  avoiding  ruts  as 
much  as  possible.  By  turning  the  hives  bottom  upward  the  weight  of 
the  combs  rests  on  their  points  of  attachment,  and  since  in  such  hives 
the  combs  are  not  always  attached  well  down  the  sides  danger  of  break- 
age is  lessened,  especially  when  the  rolls  of  cloth  are  pressed  against 
the  edges  of  the  combs.  If  the  bees  are  in  frame  hives,  the  frames  of 
which  have  not  been  disturbed  recently,  it  is  likely  that,  with  care  in 


FlG.  20. — An  apiary  in  Florida.     (Reproduced  from  photograph.) 

driving,  the  combs  will  not  get  displaced.  If  necessary  to  use  a  sheet 
or  cloth  to  give  ventilation,  it  should  be  tied  over  the  top  and  the  hive- 
placed  in  the  wagon  in  the  same  position  it  occupied  on  the  stand,  lest 
the  combs,  not  being  attached  all  the  way  down,  should  fall  to  one  side 
or  the  other.  Except  during  quite  warm  weather  and  for  long  trips 
it  may  not  be  necessary  to  adopt  all  the  precautions  here  indicated, 
although  in  case  bees  are  to  be  transported  on  long  journeys  by  rail  or 
water  far  more  careful  preparation  is  even  necessary. 

SELECTION   OF   SITE. 

The  apiary  should  be  located  where  no  surface  water  will  collect  dur- 
ing heavy  storms,  yet  the  ground  should  not  be  very  uneven,  but  rather 
a  gentle  slope.  In  the  colder  portions  of  the  United  States  a  south- 
eastern exposure  is  decidedly  preferable,  though  in  the  South  the  slope 
of  the  site  is  less  important  to  the  welfare  of  the  bees ;  a  direct  southern 


LOCATION    OF    APIARY. 


39 


or  southwestern  exposure,  however,  will  be  found  extremely  uncom- 
fortable at  times  both  for  the  operator  and  for  his  bees.  A  windbreak, 
such  as  a  board  fence,  a  hedge,  or  a  row  of  evergreens  on  the  north  and 
west,  is  advisable  as  a  protection  against  sharp  winds  in  winter  and 
early  spring,  which  keep  many  bees  from  reaching  their  hives  even  when 
near  the  entrances.  Some  shade  is  desirable,  yet  such  density  as  to 
produce  dampness  is  extremely  detrimental.  In  moist  elevated  regions, 
which  are  of  course  cool,  no  shade  will  be  needed,  except  temporarily 
for  newly  hived  swarms.  Tall  trees  are  objectionable  in  or  near  the 
apiary,  because  swarms  are  likely  to  cluster  so  high  as  to  render  their 
capture  difficult  and  dangerous.  Some  of  the  self-hivers  or  nonswarm- 
ing  devices  now  offered  for  sale  may  with  improvement  yet  accomplish 
the  end  in  view,  but  heretofore  clipping  one  wing  of  each  laying  queen 


Fia.  21.— An  apiary  in  California.    (Reproduced  from  photograph.) 

and  using  all  precautions  to  prevent  after-swarming,  making  artificial 
swarms,  selection  in  breeding,  or  any  other  means  known  to  limit 
swarming,  have  not  sufficed  to  prevent  the  occasional  issuance  of  a 
swarm  with  a  queen  having  wings.  Therefore  it  is  advisable  to  have 
the  apiary  located  under  or  -near  low  trees,  where  the  hives  can  be 
readily  seen  from  the  house.  Carniolan,  Italian,  and  Cyprian  bees  give 
less  trouble  to  passers-by  or  to  live  stock  than  do  the  ordinary  brown 
or  German  bees,  or  hybrids  of  these  races,  yet  whatever  race  be  kept, 
it  is  best  to  have  the  apiary  as  secluded  as  the  necessary  or  desirable 
conditions  will  permit. 

The  frontispiece  and  figures  20,  21,  and  75,  taken  from  photographs 
of  apiaries  located  in  different  parts  of  the  country,  give  a  fair  idea  of 
sites  actually  occupied  and  the  arrangement  of  hives. 


CHAPTER  V. 
HIVES  AND  IMPLEMENTS. 

The  safest  and  best  rule  in  making  or  selecting  hives  and  implements 
for  the  apiary  is,  have  them  simple  and  accurate  in  construction.  A  plain 
box  with  frames  and  as  few  other  loose  parts  as  possible  will  yield  in 
the  hands  of  a  skillful  beemaster  far  better  results  than  the  most  elabo- 
rately constructed  bee  palace  manipulated  by  one  who  does  not  under- 
stand the  nature  and  requirements  of  bees ;  in  fact,  the  most  experienced 
generally  prefer  the  former.  The  important  point  to  decide  in  connec- 
tion with  any  proposed  modification  or  adjunct  of  the  hive  is  whether 
its  adoption  will  more  than  compensate  for  the  resultant  loss  of  sim- 
plicity. While  zealously  endeavoring  to  preserve  simplicity  of  construc- 
tion, however,  complete  adaptability  to  the  purpose  designed  must  be 
kept  in  view,  and  should  not  be  sacrificed  because  of  a  slight  added 
expense.  The  bee  keeper  needs  but  few  implements.  With  even  a 
limited  number  of  hives,  a  smoker,  a  wax  extractor,  and  a  few  queen- 
introducing  cages  are  the  most  necessary,  and  one  or  two  bee  veils  had 
better  be  added  to  the  equipment,  the  total  cost  of  which  need  not  exceed 
$5  to  $6.  If  the  intention  be  to  produce  comb  honey,  and  but  a  few  hives 
are  kept,  then  sections  folded  and  with  starters  in  place  had  better  be 
purchased,  but  with  ten  or  more  hives  and  time  during  the  winter  season 
to  prepare  sections  for  the  harvest,  a  section  folder  and  a  foundation 
fastener,  costing  together  about  $3,  may  be  profitably  added  to  the  outfit. 
If  only  extracted  honey  is  wanted  a  honey  extractor  with  one  or  two 
uncapping  knives  should  be  purchased  instead  of  the  section  folder  and 
foundation  fastener,  the  cost  of  the  outfit  being  in  this  case  some  $15  to 
$18.  Fifty  or  even  seventy-five  hives  may  be  managed  conveniently 
and  economically  with  no  greater  investment  in  implements  than  that 
indicated  above,  and  if  both  comb  and  extracted  honey  are  wanted  the 
cost  of  the  outfit,  it  can  readily  be  seen,  need  not  exceed  $20. 

HIVES. 

In  regard  to  the  particular  style  or  form  of  hive  to  be  used  to  insure 
the  best  results,  it  should  be  stated  that  while  an  intelligent  apiarist 
whose  experience  has  been  considerable  may  be  successful  with  almost 
any  hive,  even  with  poor  ones,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  a  hive  not 
only  adapted  to  the  nature  of  the  bees  but  also  to  the  climate  of  the 
bee  keeper's  particular  locality,  and  at  the  same  time  permitting  the 
rapid  performance  of  all  operations  necessary  in  securing  surplus 
40 


HIVES MOVABLE    FRAMES. 


41 


FIG.  22— Ancient  Greek 
movable  comb  hive. 
(After  La  Maiaon  rus- 
tique,  published  in  1742.) 


honey,  will  very  materially  affect  the  net  profit  of  an  apiary.  This 
being  the  case,  the  original  cost  of  a  hive%  whether  a  dollar  or  two  more 
or  less,  is  of  small  importance  compared  with  the  desirability  of  secur- 
ing convenience  and  simplicity  in  its  management  and  of  promoting 
the  welfare  of  the  bees  in  winter  and  summer.  Frame  hives  managed 
with  intelligence  and  skill  are  essential  to  the  greatest  success.  Inac- 
curately made  frame  hives,  neglected,  as  is  too  

frequently  the  case,  so  that  the  combs  are  built 
irregularly  between  or  across  the  frames,  are  not 
one  whit  better  than  box  hives.  Even  an  accu- 
rately built  frame  hive,  if  no  attention  ,s  given  to 
the  spacing  of  the  frames  when  combs,  are  being 
built,  will  soon  present  no  advantages  over  a  box 
hive  of  the  same  dimensions  and  having  the  same 
space  for  supering  above  the  brood  apartment.  " 

The  frame  and  hive  most  in  use  in  this  country 
is  the  invention  of  Eev.  L.  L.  Langstrofh,  and  this 
hive,  with  slight  modifications,  has  been  generally 
adopted  in  England  and  her  colonies.  It  is  also  becoming  known  and 
appreciated  on  the  continent  of  Europe.  The  patent  on  the  frame — 
the  essential  feature — expired  many  years  ago,  so  that  anyone  who  may 
wish  to  do  so  is  now  free  to  employ  the  invention.  It  is  still  used  by 
many  in  the  same  form  in  which  it  was  brought  out  in  1852.  Others 
have  changed  the  dimensions  of  the  frames  and  given  them  different 

names,  while  retaining  the 
special  feature  of  the  inven- 
tor's principle,  namely,  the 
loose  fitting  frame  suspend- 
ed by  the  projecting  ends 
of  its  top  bar  on  a  contin- 
uous rabbet.  The  outside 
dimensions  of  the  Lang- 
stroth  frame  most  in  use 
are  17|  inches  long  by  9J 
inches  deep  (fig.  24).  Mr. 
M.  Quinby,  one  of  the  most 
practical  and  successful 
beemasters  of  our  century, 
preferred  frames  12  inches 
deep  by  18  inches  long,  and 
and  these  are  still  used  by 
many  large  honey  raisers.  Other  sizes  are  also  used  somewhat. 

The  bars  composing  frames  are  usually  made  seven-eighths  inch  wide, 
although  some  prefer  to  have  the  top  bar  1  inch  or  even  1J  inches  wide, 
and  the  bottom  bar  is  made  by  some  as  narrow  as  five-eighths  inch  or 
even  three-eighths  inch  square.  The  narrower  bottom  bar,  at  least 
down  to  a  width  of  five-eighths  inch,  renders  the  removal  of  the  traraes 


FIG.  23.— Dadant-Quinby  form  of  Langstroth  hive,  with  cap 
and  gable  roof.  (Redrawn  from  Langstroth  on  the  Honey 
Bee.) 


42 


MANUAL    OF    APICULTURE. 


less  difficult,  and  bees  are  brushed  off  a  little  more  easily;  but  when 
combs  cut  from  box  hives  are  to  be  fitted  into  the  frames  it  is  not  quite 
so  easy  to  hold  the  pieces  in  the  center  of  the  frame  by  means  of  trans- 
ferring sticks  and  get  the  bees  to  fasten  them  securely  at  the  bottom  as 

it  is  with  full  seven-eighths- 

T 


,1 


inch  bottom  bars.  Top  bars 
have  been-  made  by  some 
hive  manufacturers  from 
one-fourth-inch  to  three- 
eighths-inch  strips, 
strengthened  somewhat  by 
a  very  thin  strip  placed 
edgewise  on  the  underside 
as  a  comb  guide;  but  such 
bars  are  much  too  light  and 
will  sag  when  filled  with 
honey  or  with  brood  and  honey,  and  when  section  holders  or  other 
receptacles  for  surplus  honey  or  sets  of  combs  are  placed  above  them 
more  than  a  bee  space  exists  between  the  upper  and  lower  sets  of  frames 
or  between  the  section  holder  and  the  frames  below,  and  the  bees  will 
fill  in  with  bits  of  comb  between  these,  making  it  difficult  to  remove  the 
top  story  or  any  of  the  combs  from  it;  indeed,  an  attempt  under  such 


FlG.  24.— Langstroth  J'rame;  size,  17$  in.  by  9: 
pn,  projecting  nail.     (Original.) 


ill.  outside; 


Yin.  25.-  Form  in  which  to  nail  frames:  b,  button;  db,  double  button.     (Original.) 

circumstances  to  remove  combs  from  the  top  story  generally  results 
in  tearing  the  frames  apart  and  breaking  the  combs,  and  if  honey  leaks 
out  robbing  may  be  induced  at  some  times  of  the  year,  all  because  of  an 
error  in  construction.  To  avoid  this  the  top  bar  should  never  be  less 
than  five-eighths  inch  to  three-fourths  inch  thick,  while  for  long  top 
bars  seven-eighths-inch  or  1- inch  strips  are  preferable.  The  side  and 
bottom  bars  may  be  made  of  one-fourth-inch  strips.  A  corner  is  taken 
from  the  end  of  the  top  bar  by  a  cross  cut  made  at  exactly  right  angles 
on  the  underside  of  the  top  bar,  reaching  to  within  one-fourth  inch  of 
the  top  of  the  bar,  and  another  cut  from  the  end  so  as  to  meet  the  first- 


CONSTRUCTION    OF    FRAMES. 


43 


FIG.  26.— Lock -joint  chaff  hi  ve.    (From  Gleanings  in  Bee 
Culture.) 


mentioned  one.     Each  side  bar  can  then  be  nailed  by  one  nail  driven 
from  above  through  the  top  bar,  and  two  driven  through  the  side  bar 
itself  into  the  end  of  the  top 
bar.  The  bottom  bar  can  then 
be  nailed  on,  or,  better  still, 
cut  short  enough  to  permit  it 
to  be  inserted  between  the 
side  bars,  the  nails  holding  it 
to  be  driven  through  the  lat- 
ter.   Nailing  frames  loosely 
or  without  getting  them  ex- 
actly in  true  brings  with  it 
great  disadvantages.  If  only 
slightly  out  of  shape  they  may 
swing  together  at  the  bottom 
or  touch  the  sidesof  the  hive, 
and  in  either  case  will  be 
glued  fa  st  by  the  bees ;  also  in 
the  first  instance  the  combs, 
which  are  always  built  per- 
pendicularly, wrill  not  be  wholly  within  the  frames.     To  avoid  these 
troubles  it  is  essential,  first,  that  the  parts  for  the  frames  be  cut  very 
accurately;  second,  that  the  frame  be  in  exact  shape  at  the  time  of 
nailing;  and  third,  that  the  nails  be  driven  in  quite  firmly;  long,  slen- 
der, flat-headed  wire  nails  being  necessary  to  secure  proper  stiffness  of 
the  frame.    Kails  1J  to  1|  inches  long  made  of  No.  1G  or  No,  17  wire,  or 
4d.  fine  wire  nails  are  the  right  size.    Nailing  in  a  form,  such  as  is  shown 

Greater  ease  in  withdrawing  the 
frames  from  the  hive  is  secured  by 
making  the  bottom  of  the  frame 
one-fourth  inch  less  in  width  than 
the  upper  part.  A  round-headed 
nail  or  a  curved  wire- staple  driven 
through  the  side  bar  at  each  lower 
corner  into  the  end  of  the  bottom 
bar  and  left  projecting  one-fourth 
inch  will  also  facilitate  the  removal 
of  frames  and  their  insertion  in 

Flo.  27.— Manner  of  nailing  hives.     (Original.)  ,  .  f 

the  hive  without  the  crushing  of 
bees,  and  hence  allow  more  rapid  manipulation.     (Fig.  24,  pn.) 

The  hive  to  hold  the  frames  should  be  the  plainest  kind  of  a  box,  the 
frames  resting  on  rabbets  made  in  the  tipper  edges.  Constructing  it 
with  lock  joints,  as  shown  in  fig.  20,  or  by  halving  together  the  ends 
of  the  boards,  as  in  fig.  27,  and,  in  either  case,  nailing  in  both  direc- 
tions makes  a  strong  hive  body.  The  latter  may  be  single- walled  for 
mild  climates  or  where  cellar  wintering  is  practiced;  but  for  severe 
regions  it  is  advisable  to  have  permanent  double  walls  with  the  inter- 


by  fig.  25,  is  therefore  advisable. 


4:4  MANUAL    OF   APICULTURE. 

spaces  filled  with  chaff,  ground  cork,  or  similar  material,  or  else  outer 
cases  should  be  provided  giving  space  between  the  latter  and  the  hive 
proper  for  dry  packing.  As  the  bees  always  try  to  giue  the  frames 
fast  by  means  of  propolis,  it  is  better  tc  make  them  rest  on  strips  of  tin, 
galvanized  iron,  or  band  iron.  The  rabbet  should  therefore  be  made 
eleven  sixteenths  inch  deep,  and  the  strip  of  iron  or  other  metal  frame- 
rest  nailed  on  so  that  its  edge  will  project  upward  five-sixteenths  inch 
from  the  bottom  of  the  rabbet.  Folded  strips  of  tin  as  made  by  manu- 
facturers of  apiarian  implements  are  preferable  to  single  strips  nailed 
on,  since  they  facilitate  the  sliding  of  frames  and  do  not  cut  the  top  bars 
where  the  latter  rest  upon  them  (fig.  28).  The  projecting  ends  of 
the  top  bars  being  .one-fourth  inch  thick,  the  bars  themselves  come 
within  one-eighth  inch  of  the  upper  edge  of  the  hive.  It  is  essential 
that  the  distance  between  the  ends  of  the  frames  and  the  hive  should 
not  exceed  three-eighths  inch,  lest  in  time  of  plenty  the  bees  should 
build  comb  there;  nor  can  less  than  one-fourth  inch  space  be  allowed, 
for  if  the  bees  can  not  readily  pass  around  the  ends  of  frames  of  the 
Langstroth  type  they  will  glue  the  frames  to  the  side  walls  of  the  hive, 

making  it  very  difficult,  if  not 
impossible,  to  remove  them 
without  breakage.  If,  as  sug- 
gested, the  frames  are  made 
one  fourth  inch  shorter  at  the 
bottom  than  at  the  top,  that 
is,  17{f  inches  at  bottom  and 

FIG.  28.-Section  of  improved  tin  frarne-iest:  A,  folded'  17£  illCllCS  at  tol>»  the  Wve 
edge  on  which  frame  rests;  B  and  D,  nails.  (From  should  then  be  18 J  inches  iii- 
Gieanings.)  gj^e  -from  front;  to  rear,  the 
frames  running  in  this  direction.  If  the  frames  are  accurately  made 
there  will  then  be  one  fourth  inch  space  at  each  end  of  the  frame  just 
below  the  top  bar  and  three  eighths  inch  at  each  end  of  the  bottom 
bar.  Between  the  frames  and  the  bottom  board,  on  which  the  hive 
rests,  one-half  inch  space  answers,  but  five-eighths  inch  is  preferable. 
The  width  of  the  hive  will  depend,  of  course,  upon  the  number  of  frames 
decided  upon,  If  inches  being  allowed  for  each  frame,  and  three-eighths 
inch  added  for  the  extra  spate  at  the  side.  If  a  top  story  to  contain 
frames  for  extracting  is  placed  over  the  brood  chamber,  its  depth  is  to 
be  such  as  to  leave  the  space  between  the  two  sets  of  combs  not  over 
five-sixteenths  inch,  and  in  this,  as  in  the  lower  story,  the  space  between 
the  ends  of  the  frames  and  the  hive  wall  should  be  no  more  than  three- 
eighths  inch.  A  good  way  to  keep  rain  from  beating  in  between  the 
stories  and  also  to  retain  the  warmth  of  the  bees  in  outdoor  wintering, 
yet  admit  of  suitable  provision  for  the  upward  escape  of  moisture,  is 
to  have  the  second  story  fit  over  the  top  of  the  lower  one,  and  rest  on 
ledges  made  by  nailing  strips  around  the  latter  one-half  inch  below  the 
upper  edge.  As  this  makes  the  upper  story  nearly  2  inches  larger  from 
front  to  rear  than  the  lower  one,  it  will  be  necessary  when  arranging 


CONSTRUCTION   OF    HIVES. 


45 


this  story  for  frames  to  make  the  front  and  rear  double-walled.  This 
is  easily  done  by  tacking  on  the  inside  of  each  end  two  half- inch  strips, 
on  which  a  half-inch  board  is  then  nailed.  These  inside  end  pieces 
should  be  only  wide  enough  to  reach  within  three-fourths  inch  of  the 
top  edge  of  the  outer  ends,  and,  like  the  lower  story,  should  be  finished 
at  the  top  with  a  metal  rabbet  for  the  frames  to  rest  on,  or  the  inside 
piece  may  be  made  to  come  within  three-eighths  inch  of  the  top  and  its 
upper  edge  beveled  so  the  frames  can  not  be  greatly  propolized,  an 
arrangement  which  answers  very  well  for  this  story. 

As  to  the  width  of  hives  and  consequent  number  of  frames  each 
story  is  to  hold,  there  has  been  of  late  much  diversity  of  opinion. 
The  original  Langs  troth  hive  held  ten  frames  in  the  lower  story  and 


FIG.  29.— The  Langstroth  hive— Dadant-Quiiiby  form— cross  section  showing  construction. 

(From  Langstroth.) 

eleven  frames  in  the  second  or  top  story.  A  demand  for  smaller-sized 
brood  chambers  and  uniformity  of  the  stories  having  been  created,  the 
larger  hive- manufacturing  establishments  gave  hives  constructed  to 
hold  eight  frames  the  most  prominent  place  in  their  catalogues,  and 
by  many  it  was  considered  that  those  who  adhered  to  the  older,  larger 
form  did  so  merely  through  conservatism.  But  after  some  years'  trial 
a  reaction  in  favor  of  larger  hives  seems  to  have  set  in,  especially 
among  producers  of  extracted  honey.  Many  of  the  latter  are  finding 
that  with  carefully  bred  queens  even  twelve  frame  brood  apartments 
give  the  best  results.  The  author's  experience  of  over  twenty-five  years 
with  frame  hives  of  various  sizes  and  styles,  both  American  and  foreign, 
in  widely  differing  climates,  convinces  him  that  to  restrict  a  hive  to 
a  capacity  of  less  than  ten  frames  for  the  brood  chamber  is,  in  most 
3407— No.  1—05 4 


46 


MANUAL    OF    APICULTURE. 


FlG.  30. — The  Nonpareil  hive.     (From  Bee-Keeping  for 
Profit.) 


localities,  undesirable,  but  it  will  frequently  be  found  advantageous 
to  contract  temporarily  the  space  occupied  by  the  bees.  For  extracted 
honey  alone,  especially  in  any  region  having  a  short  flow  of  honey, 
twelve-frame  capacity  is  preferable.  Thin,  movable  partitions,  known 

as  "division  boards,"  enable 
one  to  contract  the  space  at 
will,  and  the  addition  of  su- 
pers or  top  stories  gives  stor- 
age room  for  surplus  honey. 
Some  prefer  to  have  the  hive 
in  one  story  holding  twice 
the  usual  number  of  frames 
and  con  tract!  ble  with  a  divi- 
sion board.  The  entrance  is 
then  usually  at  one  end,  par- 
allel with  the  combs,  and  the 
surplus  honey  is  obtained  from  the  rear  part  of  the  hive,  either  in  sec- 
tions held  in  wide  frames  or  it  is  extracted  with  a  machine  from  ordi- 
nary frames.  This  plan  renders  access  to  all  of  the  frames  somewhat 
easier  than  when  two  or  more  stories  are  used,  but  as  the  methods  now 
most  followed  involve  on 
the  whole  less  manipula- 
tion of  individual  frames 
than  was  formerly  deemed 
advantageous  this  supe- 
riority can  not  count  for 
much — hardly  enough  in 
fact  to  balance  the  limita- 
tion as  to  the  number  of 
frames  and  the  inconven- 
ience of  larger  and  more 
unwieldy  hive  bodies,  cov- 
ers, and  bottom  boards. 

Small  hives  may  yield 
excellent  results  in  the 
hands  of  a  skillful  IHH<- 
master,  but  an  equal  de- 
gree of  skill  will,  in  gen- 
eral, give  as  good,  if  not 
better,  returns  from  large 
hives,  and  the  novice  who  may  not  know-just  when  or  how  to  perform 
all  operations  will  find  himself  much  safer  with  hives  holding  ten  or 
twelve  frames  in  each  story,  and  far  more  likely  to  secure  good  returns 
from  them  than  from  smaller  ones. 

A  good,  tight  roof  or  cover  is  indispensable,  well  painted,  so  that  no 
drop  of  water  can  get  in  from  above.     A  flat  roof  slanting  from  front  to 


FIG.  'U.-Dadant-Quinby  form  of  Langstroth  hive,  open:  a, 
front  of  brood  apartment ;  b.  alighting  board;  c,  movable  en- 
trance block;  d,  cap;  c.  straw  mat;/,  carriage-cloth  cover 
for  frames;  y,g,  frames  with  combs.  (From  Langstroth.) 


CONSTRUCTION   OF   HIVES.  47 

rear  will  answer,  but  a  ventilated  gable  roof  with  the  sides  well  slanted 
is  far  preferable.  Above  the  sections  or  the  upper  set  of  frames  a  piece 
of  carriage  cloth,  enameled  side  down,  should  be  laid  during  the  summer 
season  to  prevent  too  great  escape  of  heat  above  and  to  keep  the  bees 
from  getting  into  the  roof  or  propolizing  it.  The  cloth  is  more  suitable 
than  a  board,  since  the  latter  when  propolized  can  not  be  removed  with- 
out considerably  jarring  the  bees.  If  the  carriage  cloth  be  weighted 
with  a  board  which  has  been  clamped  with  a  strip  across  each  end  to 
prevent  warping,  there  will  be  less  propolization  of  the  sections  above 
or  building  of  bits  of  comb  on  the  tops  of  the  frames  when  these  have 
been  used.  To  dispense  with  this  extra  piece  and  also  to  render  the 
gable  cover  flat  on  the  underside,  the  board  which  rests  on  the  car- 
riage cloth  may  be  nailed  to  the  cover  permanently.  During  very  hot 
weather  the  quilt  may  be  turned  back  and  the  cover  propped  up. 
.  The  bottom  board  to  the  hive  may  be  nailed  permanently  or  the  hive 
may  be  merely  placed  on  it.  In  either  case  the  sides  and  back  of  the 
hive  should  be  wide  enough  to  come  down  over  the  edges  of  the  bottom 
board  and  thus  shed  all  water  that  runs  down  the  outside  of  the  hive. 
A  sloping  board  in  front  will  facilitate  the  entrance  of  heavily  laden  bees 
and  many  that  fall  to  the  ground  will  crawl  in  if  the  hive  is  within  8  or 
10  inches  of  the  ground.  Many  persons  place  the  bottom  boards  directly 
on  the  ground,  and  the  majority  have  them  but  3  or  4  inches  above  the 
surface.  By  arranging  them  farther  from  the  "ground,  at  least  C  or  8 
inches,  dampness  is  avoided  and  the  ease  in  manipulation  is  greatly 
increased.  English  manufacturers  make  the  Langstroth  hive  with  per- 
manent legs  some  G  or  8  inches  long.  This  is  no  doubt  necessary  in 
the  damp  climate  of  that  country,  and  even  here  the  free  circulation  of 
the  air  beneath  the  hive  and  the  entrance  of  direct  rays  of  sunlight  at 
times  are  so  beneficial  that  there  might  well  be  a  return  to  this  valua- 
ble feature,  which  was  part  of  the  original  Langstroth  hive. 

Great  accuracy  of  parts  must  be  insisted  upon  in  hives  and  frames, 
both  because  covers  and  top  stories  should  be  made  to  fit  interchange- 
ably, and  because  the  bees  carry  out  their  own  work  with  great  pre 
cision,  so  that  ease  in  manipulation  of  combs  can  only  be  secured  by 
nice  adjustment.  Hives  cut  by  machinery  are  therefore  greatly  to  be 
preferred,  and  though  most  of  those  kept  in  stock  by  apiarian  manu- 
facturers do  not  include  in  their  construction  all  of  the  features  men- 
tioned above,  they  still  answer  in  most  particulars  the  requirements 
of  bee  life,  aud,  if  proper  protection  for  the  winter  be  afforded,  are  very 
serviceable. 

IMPLEMENTS. 

BEE   SMOKERS. 

No  well  appointed  apiary  in  these  days  is  without  one  or  more  bee 
smokers.  The  professional  bee  keeper  who  has  once  used  a  bellows 
smoker  would  as  soon  think  of  dispensing  with  this  implement  as  a 


48  MANUAL    OF   APICULTURE. 

skillful  cook  would  be  disposed  to  go  back  from  the  modern  cooking 
range  to  the  old-fashioned  fireplace. 

For  hundreds  of  years  smoke  has  been  used  to  quell  and  even  stupefy 
bees,  and  various  forms  of  bee  smokers  have  long  been  used ;  but  the 
modern  bellows  form,  so  far  superior  to  the  old  clumsy  implements 
which  oftentimes  required  both  hands  of  the  operator,  or  to  be  held 
between  the  teeth,  is  purely  an  American  invention.  Mr.  M.  Quiuby, 
one  of  the  pioneers  in  improved  methods  in  apiculture  in  America,  was 
the  inventor  of  the  bellows  smoker  having  the  fire  box  at  the  side  of 

the  bellows  so  arranged  as  to  ena- 
,^'^V  ble  the  operator  to  work  it  with 
one  hand,  and  when  not  in  use  to 
stand  it  upright  and  secure  a  draft 
which  would  keep  the  fire  going. 

Certain  improvements  on  the  original  Quinby  smoker 
have  been  made  without  changing  the  general  form  of 
the  implement,  one  of  the  most  effective  and  durable  of 
these  improved  makes  being  the  Bingham  direct-draft 
smoker.  Other  modifications  are  the  Crane,  with  a  cut- 
FiG.32.-TheBing  off  valve,  the  Clark,  Hill,  and  Corneil  smokers.  The 
ham  bee  smoker.  medium  and  larger  sized  smokers,  even  for  use  in  small 
apiaries,  are  preferable.  They  light  easier,  take  in  all  kinds  of  fuel,  and 
hold  fire  better,  while  they  are  always  much  more  effective  since  they 
furnish  a  large  volume  of  smoke  at  a  given  instant,  thus  nipping  in  the 
bud  any  incipient  rebellion.  The  bee  smoker  and  its  use  are  well  shown 
by  figs.  12,  32,  and  53. 

VEILS. 

Veils  for  the  protection  of  the  face  will  be  needed  at  times — for  vis- 
itors if  not  for  the  manipulator.  The  beginner,  however,  should  use 
one  under  all  circumstances  until  lie  has  acquired  some  skill  in  opening- 
hives  and  manipulating  frames  and  has  become  acquainted  with  the 
temper  and  notes  of  bees,  so  that  he  will  have  confidence  when  they 
are  buzzing  about  him  and  will  know  when  it  is  really  safe  to  dispense 
with  the  face  protector.  Veils  are  made  of  various  materials.  In  those 
which  offer  the  least  obstruction  to  the  sight,  black  silk  tulle  or  brus- 
sels  net  is  used,  the  meshes  of  which  are  hexagonal.  Linen  brussels 
net  is  more  durable  than  silk,  as  is  also  cotton,  though  the  latter  turns 
gray  in  time  and  obstructs  the  vision.  By  making  the  front  only  of 
silk  and  the  sides  of  some  ordinary  white  cotton  netting  the  cost  of  the 
veil  is  less,  but  it  is  not  so  comfortable  to  wear  in  hot  weather,  being 
less  open.  A  rubber  cord  is  drawn  into  the  upper  edge,  which  brings 
the  latter  snugly  in  about  the  hat  band.  By  having  the  veil  long  and 
full  and  drawing  it  over  a  straw  hat  with  a  wide,  stiff  brim,  tying  the 
lower  edge  about  the  shoulders  or  buttoning  it  inside  a  jacket  or  coat, 
the  face  is  securely  protected.  (Fig.  12.) 


IMPLEMENTS. 


49 


FIG.  33. 


-Williams'  automatic  reversible 
honey  extractor. 


HONEY  EXTRACTORS   AND   HONEY   KNIVES. 

The  honey  extractor  (fig.  33)  consists  of  a  large  can,  within  which  a 
light  metal  basket  revolves.  The  full  coinbs  of  honey,  from  which  the 
cappings  of  the  cells  have  been  removed  by  a  sharp  knife,  are  placed 
inside  the  basket  and  after  several 
rapid  revolutions  by  means  of  a  sim- 
ple gearing  are  found  to  have  been 
emptied  of  their  contents.  The  combs, 
only  very  slightly  damaged,  can  then 
be  returned  to  the  hives  to  be  refilled 
by  the  bees.  If  extra  sets  of  combs 
are  on  hand  to  supply  as  fast  as  the 
bees  need  the  room  in  which  to  store 
honey,  great  yields  can  often  be  ob- 
tained. A  good  extractor  should  be 
made  of  metal,  and  the  basket  in 
which  the  combs  are  revolved  should 
be  light,  strong,  and  doubly  braced 
on  the  outside  so  that  the  wire-cloth 
surface,  against  which  the  combs 
press,  will  not  yield.  The  wire  cloth 
used,  as  well  as  all  interior  parts  of  the  extractor,  should  be  tinned, 
as  acids  of  honey  act  011  galvanized  iron,  zinc,  iron,  etc.  Wire  cloth 
made  of  coarse  wire  and  with  meshes  one-half  inch  square  is  often 
used,  but  it  injures  the  surface  of  new  combs  and  those  very  heavy 

with  honey  more  than  that  made 
of  about  No.  20  wire  and  with 
one-fourth -inch  meshes. 

For  removing  the  wax  cov- 
ering with  which  the  bees  close 
the  full  cells  a  peculiarly  shaped 
knife,  known  as  an  uncapping  knife,  is  needed  (figs.  34  and  35).  The 
blade,  which  should  be  of  the  finest  steel  to  hold  a  keen  edge,  is  fixed 
at  such  an  angle  with  the  handle  as  to  keep  the  hand  that  grasps  the 
latter  from  rubbing  over  the  surface  of  the  comb  or  the  edges  of  the 
frames.  The  form  of  knife  with 
curved  point  is  best  adapted  to 
reach  any  depression  in  the  comb, 
which,  if  uncapped  and  emptied 
of  its  honey,  will  likely  next  time 
be  built  out  even  with  the  general 
surface.  Dipping  the  knife  in  hot  water  facilitates  rapid  work,  and 
of  course  the  heavier-bladed  knives  hold  the  heat  better  than  thin- 
bladed  ones,  and  Tire  for  this  reason  preferred  by  some;  also  because 
they  more  surely  lift  the  capping  clear  from  the  surface  of  the  comb. 


FIG.  34.— Quinby  uncapping  knife. 


FIG.  35.— Bingbara   &   Hetherington    uncapping 
knife. 


"50  MANUAL    OF    APICULTURE. 

WAX  EXTRACTORS. 

A  solar  wax  extractor  is  needed  in  every  apiary;  several  are  kept 
running  in  many  large  apiaries.  Extractors  which  render  wax  by  steam 
are  also  used.  To  the  latter  class  belongs  the  improved  Swiss  wax 
extractor  (tig.  36).  This  implement,  invented  in  Switzerland  and 
improved  in  America,  consists  of  a  tin  or  copper  vessel  with  a  circle  of 
perforations  in  the  bottom  near  the  sides  to  let  in  steam  from  a  boiler 
below,  and  within  this  upper  vessel  another  receptacle — the  comb 
receiver — made  of  perforated  zinc.  Its  use,  as  well  as  that  of  the  solar 
wax  extractor,  is  described  under  the  head  of  "Wax  production." 

Within  a  few  years  wax  extractors  employing  the  heat  of  the  sun 
and  known  as  solar  wax  extractors  have  come  into  general  use  (tig.  Gl). 
The  essential  features  in  all  the  forms  that  have  been  devised  are  a 
metal  tank  with  a  glass  cover  and  usually  a  wire-cloth  strainer,  below 

which  is  placed  the  receptacle  for  the  wax, 
the  whole  so  arranged  as  to  enable  one  to  tilt 
it  at  such  an  angle  as  will  catch  the  direct 
rays  of  the  sun.  The  effectiveness  of  the 
solar  wax  extractor  is  increased  by  Laving 
the  glass  doubled,  and  adding  also  a  reflector, 
such  as  a  mirror  or  a  sheet  of  bright  metal. 
An  important  advantage  of  the  solar  wax 
extractor  is  the  ease  with  which  small  quan- 
tities of  comb  can  be  rendered.  By  having 
this  machine  much  is  therefore  saved  that 
might  be  ruined  by  wax  moth  larvae  if  allow- 
ed to  accumulate,  besides  serving  at  the  same 
FiG.36_Exceisior  wax  extractor.  time  to  increase  these  pests  about  the  apiary. 

The  wax   obtained  by  solar   heat  is  also  of 

superior  quality,  being  clean,  never  water-soaked  nor  scorched,  and 
also  light  in  color,  owing  to  the  bleaching  action  of  the  sunlight. 

The  cost  of  a  medium-sized  solar  wax  extractor  does  not  exceed  that 
of  the  larger  Swiss  steam  extractors,  yet  of  the  two  the  former  is  likely 
to  prove  by  far  the  more  valuable,  even  though  it  can  be  used  only 
during  the  warmer  months. 

QUEEN-INTRODUCING   CAGES. 

In  every  apiary  there  should  be  several  of  these  on  hand.  The  best 
are  such  as  permit  the  caging  of  the  queen  directly  on  the  comb  over 
cells  of  honey.  A  little  practice  will  enable  anyone  to  make  very 
serviceable  and  cheap  cages  for  introducing  queens.  From  a  piece  of 
wire  cloth  having  ten  to  twelve  meshes  to  the  inch  cut  a  strip  2  inches 
wide;  cut  this  in  piecos  4J  inches  long,  roll  each  piece  around  a  stick 
to  give  it  a,  cylindrical  form,  lap  the  edges,  and  sew  with  a  piece  of 
wire.  Then  in  one  end  of  this  cylinder  make  slits  three-quarters  inch 


IMPLEMENTS. 


51 


apart  and  three-quarters  inch  deep,  and  bend  over  the  tongues  thus 
formed  so  as  to  close  this  end  of  the  cage.  With  the  Hat  end  of  a 
pencil  press  warm  wax  or  comb  into  the  bottom  inside  to  give  it  firmness. 
Then  unravel  five  or  six  strands  of  the  wire  cloth  at  the  <rther  end. 
The  wire  points  left  after  unraveling  these  strands  may  be  pressed  into 
the  comb  so  as  to  confine  a  queen  and  four  or  five  of  her  attendant 
workers.  (Fig.  66.) 

Most  of  the  queen-mailing  cages  are  arranged  to  admit  of  their  use 
in  introducing  the  queens  also,  so  that  when  received  it  is  only  neces- 
sary to  withdraw  a  cork  and  place  the  cage  on  top  of  the  brood  frames, 
thus  admitting  the  bees  to  the  candy.  They  will  eat  their  way  in  and 
release  the  queen  in  twenty-four  to  forty  eight  hours.  This  plan  is 
very  good  for  such  as  lack  experience  in  handling  queens,  and  hence 
might  injure  them  by  grasping  the  abdomen,  by  pinching  the  thorax 
too  hard,  or  by  catching  the  legs  on  the  wire  cloth  of  the  introducing 
cage. 

BEE   FEEDERS. 

During  warm  weather  liquid  food  may  be  placed  in  any  open  recep- 
tacles which  can  be   set  in   the 
upper  stories  of  the  hives.     Tin 
fruit  or  vegetable  cans  that  have 
been  used  may  be  made  to  serve 
the  purpose,  a  wooden  float  for    FIQ. 37._simPucity  feeder. 
each  or  some  bits  of  comb  being  culture.) 

put  in  to  keep  the  bees  from  drowning;  but  during  cool  weather  feeders 
arranged  to  admit  the  bees  but  not  permit  the  escape  of  heat  had  better 


(From  A  B  C  of  Bee 


j 


FlG.  38.— Fruit-jar  bee  feeder.     Bottom  of  feeding  stage  and  perforated  cap  shown  separately.     (Orig. 


52  MANUAL    OF   APICULTURE. 

be  employed.  Glass  fruit  jars  with  metal  caps  are  generally  at  hand,  and 
make  excellent  feeders  by  merely  punching  a  few  holes  in  each  cap. 
After  the  jar  is  filled  with  liquid  food  and  the  cap  screwed,  on  tightly 
it  is  inverted  over  a  feed  hole  in  the  quilt  or  honey  board.  The  cap,  or 
top  story,  with  cover,  protects  the  whole,  and  it  is  very  easy  to  see  when 
more  food  is  wanted  by  merely  raising  the  cover  slightly.  If  arranged 
on  a  feeding  stage  covered  on  the  underside  with  wire  cloth,  as  shown 
in  fig.  38,  feeding  may  be  accomplished  without  being  troubled  by  the 
workers. 

Feeders  of  various  forms  constructed  of  wood  or  tin,  or  of  these 
materials  combined,  most  of  them  serving  the  purpose  excellently,  are 
offered  in  catalogues  of  apiarian  manufacturers. 

SECTION   FOLDERS. 

Sections  can  be  folded  or  put  together  readily  over  an  accurately 
made  block  just  large  enough  to  fill  the  space  inclosed  by  a  section, 
and  several  machines  to  facilitate  the  work  in  case  it  is  to  be  done  on 
a  large  scale  have  been  devised. 

BEE    ESCAPES. 

The  bee  escape  (fig.  39)  is  an  important  labor-saving  invention  for 
the  honey  producer.  A  number  of  them  maybe  regarded  as  necessary 

in  every  apiary.  They  are  in- 
serted in  holes  bored  in  a  hon- 
ey board  and  used  in  freeing 
supers  from  bees,  as  described 
under  "Honey  production." 

FO UND ATION    I  A STK X K 1  r s . 
FIG.  39.-The  Porter  spring  bee  escape.  F°T  ^CtWUS.-^V^l  styles 

of   implements   for    fastening 

thin  foundation  in  sections  have  been  devised.  All  of  them  do  the 
work  well.  A  simple  one,  which  is  also  low  priced,  is  Parker's ;  (lark's 
and  the  Daisy  are  also  highly  recommended,  and  A.  C.  Miller's  is  very 
complete,  working  automatically.  The  latter,  and  the  Daisy  shown  in 
fig.  40,  each  require  the  use  of  a  lamp. 

For  frames. — If  the  top  bars  of  the  frames  have  a  slot  or  saw  kerf 
one-eighth  to  three-sixteenths  inch  deep  on  the  underside,  made  by 
passing  them  lengthwise  over  a  circular  saw,  sheets  of  foundation  can 
be  very  readily  fastened  by  slipping  the  edge  into  this  groove  and  run- 
ning melted  wax  along  the  angle  formed  on  each  side  by  the  foundation 
and  the  top  bar.  Or  a  wedge-shaped  strip  may  be  crowded  in  at  the  side 
and  secured  with  small  wire  nails.  If  the  top  bar  is  Hat  on  the  underside 
it  will  be  necessary  to  press  the  foundation  h'ntily  against  it ;  that  is,  to 
incorporate  the  edge  of  the  wax  sheet  into  the  wood  of  the  top  bar  by 
rubbing  it  with  a  smooth  bit  of  hard  wood  or  bone,  such  as  a  knife  handle, 


IMPLEMENTS. 


53 


moistening  this  implement  to  prevent  the  wax  from  sticking,  and  then 
fix  it  lirinly  by  pouring  melted  wax  down  the  other  side.  In  the  case 
of  top  bars  having  triangular  comb  guides  or  a  projecting  tongue  on 
the  underside  the  foundation  can  be  securely  fastened  by  merely  cut- 
ting live  or  six  slits  three-eighths  to  one-half  inch 
deep  in  one  edge  of  the  foundation  and  bending  the 
tongues  thus  formed  in  alternate  directions  so  as 
to  place  the  V-edge  of  the  top  bar  between  them, 
when  they  can  be  firmly  attached  to  the  top  bar  by 
rubbing  with  a  knife  handle  as  before.  Soapsuds 
or  starch  water  may  be  used  to  advantage  in  moist- 
ening the  knife  handle.  The  foundation  roller  (fig. 
41),  a  small  disk  of  hard  wood  which  revolves  in  a 
slot  at  the  end  of  a  handle  and  costs  but  a  few 
cents,  does  effective  work  in  fastening  foundation 
in  brood  frames;  in  fact,  it  is  rather  better  than 
the  knife  handle  for  the  work  just  mentioned,  ex- 
cept that  it  will  not  reach  into  the  corners  of  the 
frames,  and  to  secure  the  foundation  there  the  knife 
handle  must  still  be  used.  The  roller  will  need  to 
be  moistened  the  same  as  the  knife  handle. 

It  is  particularly  important  that  the  sheets  of  foundation  be  well 
fastened,  for  if  one  edge  breaks  loose  with  the  weight  of  the  bees  it  will 
crumple  down  in  such  a  way  as  not  only  to  ruin  that  comb,  or  rather  to 
prevent  the  building  of  a  good  comb  in  the  frame  in  question,  but  also 


FIG.  40.— The  Daisy  foun- 
dation i'astener.  (From 
Gleanings.) 


FIG.  41.-  Fastening  starter  of  comb  foundation  m  frame.     (Original.) 

very  likely  in  the  adjoining  frames  if  they  have  not  been  previously 
built  out;  and  in  this  case  damage  will  probably  result  to  them.  To 
prevent  bulging  of  the  comb  it  is  also  essential  that,  the  sheets  of  foun- 
dation, if  not  wired,  be  narrower  than  the  inside  depth  of  the  frame 
and  shorter  than  its  inside  length.  A  full  inch  of  space  should  be 


54 


MANUAL    OF    APICULTURE. 


allowed  between  the  bottom  bar  and  the  sheet  of  foundation,  and  a 
half  inch  at  each  end  for  two-thirds  of  the  way  up. 

With  these  precautions  swarms  may  even  be  hived  on  full  sheets  of 
foundation  without  wiring  the  frames;  but  the  practice  will  probably 
continue  of  using  starters,  chiefly  in  the  case  of  swarms,  and,  when  full 
sheets  are  employed,  of  alternating  them  with  combs  already  built  out. 
Some  prefer  to  wire  the  frames  even  though  it  is  considerable  trouble, 
for  the  combs  require  less  attention  while  in  process  of  construction 
and  are  firmer  for  shipping,  for  use  in  the  extractor,  or  for  any  other 
manipulation.  Three  or  four  horizontal  wires  will  suffice.  No.  30 
annealed  tinned  wire  is  the  preferable  size  and  quality.  The  end  bars 
of  the  frame  are  pierced  by  four  holes,  the  first  1  inch  below  the 
top  bar.  A  small  tack  secures  the  end  of  the  wire,  which  is  then 
passed  back  and  forth  and  drawn  up  so  as  to  leave  no  slack.  The 
four  horizontal  wires,  ii  inches  apart,  will  be  sufficient  to  render 
combs  quite  secure.  After  fastening  the  foundation  to  the  top  bar  in 

the  usual  way  the  wires  are 
embedded  in  the  wax  by  a 
spur  embedder,  which  is  a 
small  wheel  with  grooved 
teeth  (fig.  42).  Where  large 
numbers  of  frames  are  to 
be  ,vire  1  a  current  of  elec- 
tricity from  a  small  bat- 
tery will  do  the  work  more 
neatly  and  quickly  than  the 
spur  embedder. 

The  disadvantages  of  wiring  frames  are,  first,  its  expense,  caused 
chiefly  by  the  time  employed  in  doing  it;  and  second,  the  fact  that 
wherever  the  wire  does  not  get  embedded  into  the  midrib  of  the  founda- 
tion, as  is  sure  to  happen  in  many  cases,  the  rearing  of  brood  is  inter- 
fered with,  and  also,  under  the  methods  employed  by  the  majority  in 
wintering,  moisture  is  very  likely  to  cause  the  combs  to  cleave  from  the 
wires,  whereupon  the  bees  are  disposed  to  gnaw  the  combs  away  from 
the  wires  in  spots  and  not  rebuild  them. 

These  disadvantages,  except  that  of  expense,  are  overcome  by  incor- 
porating fine  wire  in  the  sheets  of  foundation  when  they  are  rolled. 
The  sheets  are  trimmed  with  wooden  shears,  which  leave  the  ends  of 
the  wires  projecting.  These  are  then  glued  to  the  bars  of  the  frame. 
The  added  expense  is  again  the  main  objection,  except  to  those  who 
wish  to  ship  colonies  or  nuclei,  or  transport  them  from  place  to  place 
for  pasturage. 

COMB-FOUNDATION   MACHINES. 

The  first  attempts  to  give  bees  outlines  of  cells  as  a  basis  for  comb 
building  were  made  in  Germany.  The  top  bars  of  the  frames  were 
coated  on  the  underside  with  beeswax,  and  a  strip  of  wood  having 


FlG. 42. — Spur  wire-eiubedder.     (From  Gleuninys.) 


IMPLEMENTS. 


55 


the  outlines  of  bees7  cells  cut  on  it  was  then  pressed  against  this  wax 
so  as  to  form  a  guide  which  should  lead  the  bees  to  build  their  combs 
within  the  frames.  This  was  only  a  comb  guide,  but  was  succeeded  by 
small  strips  of  wax  having  the  outlines  of  bees'  cells  pressed  on  tbein 
by  hand,  a  block  of  wood  being  engraved  for  this  purpose.  The  gen- 
eral use  of  comb  foundation,  especially  of  the  full  sheets,  was  only 
made  possible  through  the  improved  means  of  manufacturing  it  devel- 
oped in  the  United  States.  The  slow  process  of  hand  stamping  was 
succeeded  by  its  rapid  production  on  machines,  the  essential  feature  of 
which  is  two  engraved  cylinders 
between  which  the  warm  sheet  of 
wax  is  made  to  pass  (fig.  43).  Such 
machines  are  now  made  in  numer- 
ous patterns  costing  from  $15  up. 
Foundation  is  made  with  flat-bot- 
tomed cells  and  also  with  the  same 
form  as  that  given  by  the  bees  to 
combs  constructed  wholly  by  them- 
selves. Both  sorts  are  readily 
accepted  by  the  bees  and  built  out. 
Both  these  kinds  are  also  made  in 
various  qualities  and  weights.  Only 
a  good  quality  of  perfectly  pure 
beeswax  should  be  accepted.  Brood 

foundation  is  made  in  light,  medium,  FlG.  43.-comb-foundation  machine. 
and  heavy  weights.  For  use  in  sec- 
tion boxes  thin  surplus  and  extra  thin  surplus  are  made  of  light-colored 
wax.  When  full  sheets  are  used  in  sections  it  is  better  to  have  it  extra 
thin  lest  there  should  be  a  noticeable  toughness  of  the  midrib,  technically 
known  as  "  fishbone."  For  nn  wired  frames  the  medium  or  heavy  brood- 
comb  foundation  should  be  employed.  , 

Until  used  it  is  best  to  keep  comb  foundation  between  sheets  of  paper 
and  well  wrapped,  since  if  long  exposed  to  the  air  the  surface  of  the 
wax  hardens  somewhat,  but  if  well  packed  it  may  be  used  years  after 
it  was  made  with  almost  the  same  advantage  as  when  first  rolled  out. 

It  requires  considerable  skill  to  make  foundation  successfully,  and 
those  who  use  but  a  small  amount  will  do  better  to  purchase  their  supply. 
The  high  quality  of  nearly  all  of  the  foundation  thus  far  supplied  in  this 
country  has  also  justified  this  plan.  Should  the  practice  of  adulter- 
ating wax  become  as  common  among  comb-foundation  manufacturers 
in  this  country  as  on  the  continent  of  Europe  no  doubt  many  more 
would  procure  machines  and  make  their  own  foundation. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

BEE  PASTURAGE. 

Bees  obtain  their  food  from  such  a  variety  of  sources  that  there  are 
few  localities  in  our  country  where  a  small  apiary  could  not  be  made  to 
yield  a  surplus  above  its  own  needs.  Even  in  the  center  of  our  larger 
cities  bees  placed  on  the  roofs  of  stores  and  dwellings  have  often  fur- 
nished quite  a  surplus  gathered  from  the  gardens  of  the  city  and  its 
envinms.  Again,  in  regions  where  the  soil  is  too  light,  rocky,  or  wet 
to  admit  of  profitable  cultivation,  it  is  often  the  case  that  honey-pro- 
ducing plants  abound;  indeed,  waste  land  is  frequently  far  more  profit- 
able for  the  honey-producer  than  fields  that  have  been  brought  under 
cultivation,  especially  when  the  latter  are  mainly  devoted  to  grain  or 
potato  raising,  for  insignificant  weeds  in  field  or  swam])  often  yield 
honey  abundantly,  and  among  the  best  yielders  are  certain  forest  trees, 
whose  blossoms,  by  reason  of  their  distance  from  the  ground  and  in 
some  instances  their  small  size,  escape  notice.  Showy  flowers  made 
double  by  the  gardener's  skill,  such  as  roses,  dahlias,  chrysanthemums, 
etc.,  have  rarely  any  attraction  for  our  honey  bees.  Moreover,  the  small 
number  of  these  ornamental  plants  usually  found  in  any  one  locality 
renders  the  honey  yield,  even  in  case  they  are  abundant  secreters  of 
nectar,  so  slight  that  they  are  of  little  value.  The  novice  who  is  seek- 
ing to  determine  the  honey  resources  of  his  locality  should  therefore 
not  be  led  into  error  by  these.  He  should  compare  the  flora  of  his 
locality  with  reliable  lists  of  honey-producing  plants,  and,  if  possible, 
consult  some  practical  beemaster  familiar  with  his  surroundings.  And 
all  information  on  this  score  should  be  fully  accepted  only  after  care 
fill- verification,  as  it  is  very  easy  for  anyone  to  be  deceived  regarding 
the  sources  of  given  honey  yields — plants  which  produce  abundantly 
one  season  not  always  yielding  the  next,  or  those  that  produce  honey 
freely  in  one  portion  of  the  country  not  yielding  anything  in  another. 
Soil  and  climate,  the  variations  of  successive  seasons,  and  all  other 
conditions  affecting  plant  growth — conditions  which  even  the  most  skill- 
ful scientific  agriculturists  admit  are  exceedingly  difficult  to  understand, 
and  in  many  respects,  as  yet  unexplainable — influence  the  amount  and 
quality  of  nectar  secreted  by  a  given  plant 

The  danger  of  overstocking  is  largely  imaginary,  yet  in  estab- 
lishing a  large  apiary  it  is  ot  course  essential  to  look  to  the  natural 
resources  of  the  location,  and  especially  to  decide  only  upon  a  place 
where  two  or  more  of  the  leading  honey-producing  plants  are  pres- 
ent in  great  numbers.  In  the  North,  willows,  alder,  maples,  dan- 
delion, fruit  blossoms,  tulip  tree  (frequently  called  whitewood),  locust, 
56 


BEE   PASTURAGE. 


57 


clovers  (white,  alsike,  crimson,  and  mammoth  red),  with  alfalfa  and 
melilot,  chestnut,  linden  or  basswood,  Indian  corn,  buckwheat  lire- 
weed,  willow-herb,  knotweeds,  mints,  cleome,  golden-rods,  Spanish 
needle,  and  asters  may  be  cited  as  the  cbief  sources  of  pollen  and 
honey;  and  of  these  the  tulip  tree,  locust,  white  clover,  alfalfa,  melilot, 
linden,  and  buckwheat  furnish  most  of  the  surplus  honey.  The  fruit 
blossoms,  with  the  exception  of  raspberry,  come  so  early  that  a  small 
proportion  only  of  the  colonies  are  sufficiently  strong  to  store  surplus, 


FIG.  44. — Willow  herb  (Epilobium,  anguftifolium) .  A,  young  flower :  «,  stigma  turned  back ;  a,  anthers ; 
I,  lobe  or  pod.  B,  older  flower:  s,  stigma  turned  forward;  a,  anthers;  i,  lobe.  C,  spike  of  flowers. 
D,  section  of  pollen  grain :  e,  extiiie;  i,  intine ;  ti,  thick  intine ;  /,  fovilla.  E,  growing  point  of  pollen 
grain :  e,  e,  extine ;  i.  i,  intine ;  /,  fovilla ;  pt,  pollen  tube.  (From  Cheshire.) 

and  of  course  this  statement  applies  with  still  more  force  to  plants  which 
blossom  before  apple,  pear,  cherry,  etc.  Some  of  the  clovers,  mustard, 
rape,  cultivated  teasel,  chestnut,  barberry,  sumac,  coral  berry,  pleurisy 
root,  fireweed,  borage,  mints,  willow-herb,  Spanish  needles,  cleome,  etc., 
though  yielding  well,  are  only  found  abundantly  over  certain  areas, 
and  do  not  therefore  supply  any  considerable  portion  of  the  honey  that 
appears  on  the  market,  though  when  any  of  them  are  plentiful  in  a 
certain  locality  the  bee  keeper  located  there  will  find  in  nearly  all  cases 
that  the  surplus  honey  is  greatly  increased  thereby. 


58  MANUAL    QF   APICULTURE. 

In  the  middle  section  of  our  country,  from  Maryland,  Virginia,  and 
North  Carolina  westward,  most  of  the  sources  named  above  are  present, 
although  the  maples  (particularly  hard  maple)  furnish  less,  and  fruit 
bloom,  the  clovers,  linden,  and  buckwheat  are  not  as  great  yielders  as  in 
the  North.  Sourwood  or  sorrel  tree,  mountain  laurels,  sour  gum  or 
tupelo,  huckleberry,  cowpea,  magnolia,  and  persimmon  make  up  in  part 
for  these,  the  sounvood  being  especially  important,  while  in  some  locali- 
ties certain  species  of  asters  yield  very  abundantly.  The  tulip  tree 
(known  commonly  as  poplar)  is  a  greater  yielder  than  in  the  North, 
while  in  the  western  portion  of  the  middle  section  the  Rocky  Mountain 
bee  plant  or  cleome  and  more  extensive  areas  of  alfalfa  and  melilot  are 
very  important  sources. 

In  the  more  southern  States  fruit  bloom  is  far  from  being  as  great  a 
source  of  honey  as  in  the  North,  though  with  the  extension  of  orange 
groves  in  Florida  and  Louisiana  an  increased  production  of  very  fine 
honey  maybe  looked  for  in  those  States.  The  titi,  magnolia,  palmetto, 
and  black  mangrove  yield  well  in  some  parts,  and  sour  gum  (tupelo  or 
pepperidge),  cotton,  and  pennyroyal  are  sources  not  to  be  overlooked. 
In  Texas  horsemint  and  mesquite,  the  latter  also  extending  farther 
West,  furnish  fine  yields,  while  many  mountain  localities  of  southern 
California  are  clothed  with  white  and  black  sages — wonderful  honey 
producers.  In  certain  localities  there  the  orange  and  other  fruit 
orchards,  and  also  wild  buckwheat,  give  the  bees  excellent  pasturage 
for  a  portion  of  the  year. 

Certain  small  homopterous  insects,  such  as  plant-lice,  bark-lice,  mealy- 
wings,  and  some  leaf-hoppers,  which  congregate  on  the  leaves  or  bark  of 
various  plants  and  trees,  notably  pines,  oaks,  and  beeches,  and  suck 
their  juices,  secrete  a  sweet  liquid,  which  is  often  taken  up  by  bees  as  it 
falls  on  the  surrounding  vegetation.  This  secretion,  commonly  known 
as  honeydew,  or  plant-louse  honey,  is  usually  of  an  inferior  quality, 
though  that  from  pine-tree  aphides  is  sometimes  fairly  good.  Most  of 
it  granulates  very  soon  after  having  been  gathered,  sometimes  even 
before  the  cells  have  been  sealed. 

Under  peculiar  conditions  of  the  atmosphere  sweet  exudations,  also 
known  as  honeydew,  drop  from  the  leaves  of  certain  plants  and  are 
eagerly  taken  up  by  the  bees.  This  -substance  is  sometimes  very 
abundant  and  of  excellent  quality.  It  should  not,  however,  be  con- 
founded with  the  secretions  of  extra-floral  glands  such  as  are  possessed 
by  the  cowpea,  horse  bean,  partridge  pea,  and  vetches.  These  seem 
to  be  natural  productions  for  the  purpose  of  attracting  insects  to  the 
plants,  while  the  former  is  apparently  an  accidental  exudation  through 
the  plant  pores,  brought  about  very  likely  by  some  sudden  change  of 
temperature.  Both  are,  however,  merely  the  saccharine  juices  of  the 
plant,  and  when  refined  by  the  bees  may  become  excellent  honey. 


BEE    PASTURAGE. 


59 


CULTIVATION   OF  HONEY   PLANTS. 

In  all  localities  there  will  probably  be  found  intervals  during  the 
working-  season  when  bees  will  find  very  little  or  even  nothing  to 
gather,  unless  supplied  by  cultivation.  When  possible  it  is  always 
best  to  fill  in  such  intervals  with  some  honey  pi  educing  plant  which  at 
the  same  time  furnishes  some  other  product — fruit,  grain,  forage,  green 
manure,  or  timber.  The  attempt  to  cultivate  any  plant  for  its  honey 
alone  has  not  thus  far  been  found  profitable,  in  practice,  however 
promising  it  may  seem  theoretically.  Catnip  (Nepeto  cataria),  mother- 
wort  (Leonurus  cardiaca],  globe  thistle  (Echinops  splicer  oceplialus], 
figwort  (8crophularia  nodosa),  bee  balm  (Melissa  officinalis),  borage 
(Borago  officinalis).  Rocky  Mountain  cleome  (Cleome  serrulata],  ineli- 
lot  or  sweet  clover  (Melilotus  alba],  and  linden  (Tilia  americana)  have 
all  been  recommended  repeatedly  and  tried  here  and  there  somewhat 


FIG.  45.— Wagner  s  flat  pea  (Lathyrus  sylvestris  wagneri). 

extensively.  But  thus  far  the  hope  of  securing  a  sufficient  increase  in 
the  crop  of  honey  to  pay  for  the  cultivation  of  these  plants  has  in  all 
cases  had  to  be  abandoned.  With  the  appreciation  in  value  of  agri- 
cultural lauds  the  prospects  for  the  profitable  cultivation  of  any  crop 
for  honey  alone  are  still  further  removed.  Yet  the  writer  is  fully  con- 
vinced that  in  the  future,  especially  in  the  older  portions  of  our  country, 
eminent  success  in  bee  raising  will  require  much  more  attention  to  the 
furnishing  of  artificial  pasturage  for  the  bees,  a  close  study,  in  fact,  of 
the  bee  flora  of  one's  locality,  and  a  systematic  effort  to  supply  the 
deficiencies  by  sowing  self  propagating  honey  plants,  and  such  as  may 
be  cultivated  with  profit  for  other  reasons  besides  their  honey  yield. 

Among  those  plants  which  have  just  been  mentioned  as  having  been 
cultivated  at  various  times  for  their  honey  alone,  the  linden  for  shade 


60 


MANUAL    OF    APICULTURE. 


FIG.  46. — Dwarf  Essex  or  winter  rape  (Branfiica  ii«pu.s). 


and  ornament  as  well  as  for  timber,  catnip  for  sale  as  an  herb  or  to 
secure  its  seed,  and  inelilot  for  forage  or  green  manuring  are  the  only  ones 
which,  undei  present  conditions,  might  in  some  cases  be  profitably 
cultivated.  There  may  be  introduced  with  advantage,  however,  all 

such  honey-producing  plants 
as,  with  one  sowing  or  plant- 
ing, will  readily  propagate 
themselves  and  without  cul- 
tivation extend  their  area 
along  roadsides  and  over 
waste  lands,  always  except- 
ing of  course  such  as  may 
become  troublesome  weeds. 
For  this  purpose  most  of  the 
plants  referred  to  above  are 
available,  and  many  others 
which  like  these  are  adapted 
to  one  portion  or  another  of 
our  country  might  be  added, 
as,  for  example,  pleurisy  root 
or  butterfly  weed  (Asclepias 
tuberosa],  Indian  currant  or  coral  berry  (Symplioricarpos  symphori- 
carpos),  viper's  bugloss  (Echium  vulgar  e),  lady's  thumb  (Polygonum 
persicaria),  horsemint  (Monarda  citriodora),  willow-herb  (Epilobium 
angustifoUum),  etc.,  but  of  course  it  can  not  be  expected  that  they  :will 
thrive  and  thoroughly  establish  themselves  without  further  attention, 
except  in  such  localities  as  present  very  favora- 
ble conditions  for  their  growth.  Furthermore, 
there  is  always  the  risk  that  a  plant  which 
yields  honey  abundantly  in  one  part  of  the 
country  may  not  do  so  in  another  region,  even 
though  it  grows  well,  so  that  it  is  necessary 
in  most  cases,  especially  with  wild  plants,  to 
test  them  anew  before  extensive  introduction, 
no  matter  how  well  established  their  reputation 
as  honey  producers  may  be  elsewhere. 

Among  plants  of  economic  value  in  other 
directions  fruit  trees  and  shrubs  are  to  be 
counted  as  of  much  importance  to  bees.  The 
apple  and  the  cherry  yield  well,  the  others  less, 
though  the  gooseberry,  were  it  more  plentiful, 
would  be  of  considerable  value.  Strawberry 
blossoms  are,  in  general,  visited  sparingly  and 
yield  only  a  small  amount,  but  the  raspberry,  coining  later,  when  the 
colonies  are  stronger,  is  a  most  important  source,  greatly  liked  by  the 
bees,  and  furnishing  as  fine  a  quality  of  honey  as  is  known.  Ten  acres 


FIG.  47.— Summer  or  bird  rape 
(Brassica  napus) . 


BEE    PASTURAGE. 


61 


FlG.48.-Sacalineor  giant  knot 
sachatinense) . 


in  raspberries  will  furnish,  pasturage  for  three  weeks  to  75  or  100  colonies 
of  bees.  Mustard  for  seed,  and  rape  for  pasture  and  seed,  may  be  made 
to  furnish  much  to  the  bees  in  early  spring.  Buckwheat  honey  is  dark 
and  strong,  but  is  relished  by  some,  and  when  well  ripened  is  good 
winter  food  for  bees,  so  that  whenever  this  plant  can  be  made  to  blos- 
som at  a  time  when  the  bees  find  nothing  better  and  a  crop  of  grain  can 

also  be  harvested  from  it,  a  plenti- 
ful supply  should  by  all  means  be 
sown;   the  clovers,  white,  alsike, 
crimson,  and  mammoth  or  medium 
red  may  be  sown  for  pasturage, 
nay,  forage,  for  purposes  of  green 
manuring,  or  for  seed,  and  honey 
of  fine  quality  obtained  if  a  suf- 
ficient   number    of  blossoms    are 
allowed  to  appear.    Alfalfa  (Medi- 
cago  sativa),  a  most  important  honey 
(Poiygonum    producer  as  well  as  perennial  forage 
crop,  can  be  grown  over  a  much 
greater  area  of  the  United  States  than  has  heretofore  been  generally 
supposed.      Sainfoin  (Onobrychis    sativa)  and    serradella   (Ornithopus 
wtivus),  both  most  excellent  honey  plants,  have  not  received  the  atten- 
tion they  merit  either  North  or  South.     Japan  clover  (Lespedeza  striata) 
is  grown  profitably  in  the  South,  and  more  even  might  be  expected 
from  the  introduction  of  sulla  clover  (Hedysarum 
coronarium)  there,  the  latter  a  great  honey  pro- 
ducer.   Chicory,  even  on  poor  soil,  is  a  good  honey 
and  pollen  plant.  Northern  bee  keepers  should  try 
the  dwarf  (quick-growing)  varieties  of  cowpeas 
( Yigna  sinensis)  extensively  grown  in  the  South  for 
forage  and  green  manuring.     Vetches  are  of  recog- 
nized value  for  the  same  purposes,  especially  the 
Eussian  hairy  vetch  ( Vicia  villosa}.   Sacaline  (Poiy- 
gonum sachalinense)  and  flat  peas(£«%riw  sylves- 
tris)  are  visited  by  bees,  and  in  certain  situations 
may  be  found  of  value  otherwise.     Peppermint 
(Mentha  pipcrita)  yields  well  in  July  and  August. 
Parsnips  (Pastinaca  sativa}  when  grown  for  seed 
are  assiduously  visited  by  bees  for  honey  during 
June,  July,  and  August,    Gorse  or  furze  (Ulex 
europcKiis]  for  forage  may  prove  valuable  in  some  localities  here, 
is  highly  esteemed  in  some  parts  of  Europe.     Its  odorous  yellow  bios 
soms,  much  frequented  by  bees,  appear  in  May.    Filbert  bushes  ( Corylu 
avellana)  will  grow  in  many  portions  of  our  country,  yielding,  beside 
nuts,  an  abundance  of  early  pollen,  even  in  February  or  March 
carob  tree- (Ceratonia  oiliqua)  succeeds  in  the  Southwest,  yie 
3407— No.  1—05 5 


FIG.  49 Russian  or  hairy 

vetch  (Vicia  villosa). 

it 


62  MANUAL    OF    APICULTURE. 

crop  of  economic  value,  besides  a  harvest  in  late  summer  for  bees.  It 
is  also  a  fine  ornamental  tree.  There  are  no  finer  shade  or  ornamental 
trees  for  the  lawn  or  roadside  than  lindens  (basswoods)  and  horse-chest- 
nuts. To  these  chestnut,  locust,  sourwood,  and  tulip  trees  may  be 
added.  The  timber  of  all  is  useful;  and  since  they  are  great  honey 
yielders  their  propagation  near  the  apiary  is  very  desirable. 

Bees  range  ordinarily  within  2  or  3  miles  in  all  directions  from  their 
homes,  but  sometimes  go  farther.  Pasturage  to  be  especially  valuable, 
however,  should  be  within  2  miles,  and  less  than  a  mile  distant  to 
the  main  source  is  quite  preferable.  The  advantage  is  probably  not  so 
much  in  the  saving  of  time  in  going  back  and  forth,  for  bees  fly  with 
great  rapidity,  but  because  when  sudden  storms  arise,  especially  those 
accompanied  by  high  winds,  the  heavily  laden  bees  are  more  likely  to 
reach  home  safely  and  the  hive  will  not  be  decimated  of  its  gathering 
force. 

BEES   AS   CROSS-FERTILIZERS. 

Allusion  has  already  been  made  in  this  bulletin  to  the  importance  of 
bees  in  the  complete  cross  fertilization  of  fruit  blossoms  and  to  the  fact 
that  certain  varieties  of  pears  have  been  found  to  be  completely  self- 
sterile,  requiring,  therefore,  pollen  from  other  varieties  before  they  can 
develop  perfect  seeds  and  fruits.  It  is  interesting  to  study  the  ways 
in  which  cross  fertilization  of  plants  is  secured  through  the  visits  of 
insects.  The  part  that  bees  perform  in  the  development  and  perpetua- 
tion of  numerous  ornamental  and  economic  plants  is  thereby  clearly 
shown.  Space  will  only  permit  the  introduction  here  of  one  or  two 
examples.  The  willow-herb,  which  is  an  abundant  secreter  of  nectar 
and  thus  attracts  bees  freely,  illustrates  one  feature  in  pollination  by 
bees.  A  young  blossom  of  this  plant  (fig.  44,  A)  shows  the  stamens 
maturing  and  shedding  their  pollen,  while  the  pistil  remains  curved 
downward  arid  with  closed  stigmas.  In  the  older  flower  (fig.  44,  B), 
the  stamens  having  shed  their  pollen  and  begun  to  wither,  the  pistil 
has  straightened  up  and  exposed  its  stigmatic  surfaces  for  the  recep- 
tion of  the  pollen  which  a  bee  chancing  to  come  from  a  younger  blossom 
is  likely  to  bring.  Self-pollination  is  thus  positively  prevented  and 
cross  fertilization  is  insured. 

In  the  mountain  laurel  the  anthers  are  held  securely  by  little  pockets 
in  the  corolla,  so  that  as  the  flower  opens  the  stamens  are  found  bent 
over  (fig.  50,  B)  ready  to  be  liberated  (fig.  50,  C)  by  the  visit  of  a  bee. 
When  the  stamen  flies  up  the  pollen  is  discharged  from  the  anther  and 
dusted  on  the  underside  of  the  bee.  The  latter  as  it  alights  on  the 
next  flower  naturally  touches  the  stigma  first  and  rubs  off  some  of  the 
pollen  it  has  brought  from  the  last  flower  visited.  It  then  proceeds  to 
secure  the  nectar  of  the  flower  on  which  it  has  just  alighted,  and  in 
doing  this  liberates  the  stamens  of  this  flower  and  gets  dusted  again 
with  pollen,  which  it  carries  to  the  next  flower. 

The  cross  section  of  an  imperfectly  developed  apple  shown  herewith 
(fig.  51,  B)  illustrates  the  importance  of  complete  fertilization  of  fruit 


BEES    AS    CROSS-FERTILIZERS. 


63 


blossoms.  The  seed  vessel  at  u  shows  only  an  abortive  seed,  and  the 
side  of  the  fruit  nearest  this  point  is  also  correspondingly  undeveloped. 
This  is  owing  to  imperfect  or  complete  lack  of  fertilization  of  this 
carpel,  five  distinct  fertilizations  being  necessary  to  produce  a  perfect 


FIG.  50. — Mountain  laurel  (Kalmia  latifolia).  A,  flowering  branch.  B,  expanded  flower:  ap.  anther 
pocket.  C,  section  of  expanded  flower:  ap,  op,  anther  pockets;  *,  stigma;  a,  anther  (free) ;  py-,  pollen 
grains  in  shower;  ca,  calj-x.  Bisection  of  flower  bud:  ap,  anther  pocket.  E,  stamen  more  enlarged : 
a, anther;  po,  pores;  pg,  pollen  grains;  /,  filament.  (From  Cheshire.) 

fruit.  Bees  being,  during  the  period  of  fruit  blossoms,  the  most  abun- 
dant insects  that  might  effect  the  necessary  distribution  of  the  pollen 
of  these  flowers,  the  importance  is  at  once  seen  of  having  an  apiary  in 
or  near  the  orchard.  Continued  rainy  or  cold  weather  may  keep  the 
bees  confined  to  their  hives  much  of  the  time  during  fruit  bloom,  hence 


FIG.  51.— Apple  (Pyrus  malus),  showing  structure  of  flower  and  result  of  imperfect  fertilization. 
A,  blossom  :  «,stigmas;  a,  anthers;  p,  petal;  «',  sepal;  ca,  calyx;  a",  dissepiment.  E,  cross  section  of 
imperfectly  developed  fruit :  /,/,  fertilized  carpels ;  u,  unfertilized  carpel.  (From  Cheshire.) 

it  is  advisable  to  have  them  near  at  hand  and  in  numbers  proportionate 
to  the  size  of  the  orchards,  so  that  even  a  few  hours  of  sunshine  will 
assure  their  making  a  thorough  distribution  of  the  pollen.  In  the 
absence  of  accurate  experiments  regarding  the  number  of  colonies  of 
bees  required  to  insure  proper  fertilization  in  the  orchard,  and  also  in 


MANUAL    OF    APICULTURE. 

view  of  the  fact  that  surrounding  conditions  vary  greatly,  it  is  difficult 
to  say  exactly  how  many  colonies  are  positively  necessary  for  a  given 
number  of  trees.  However,  four  or  five  well-populated  hives  for  every 
hundred  large  apple  trees  will  doubtless  suffice,  even  though  no  other 
hive  bees  are  within  a  mile  of  the  orchard.  The  bees  of  a  neighbor's 
apiary  are  often  quite  sufficient  for  the  orchardist's  purpose,  the  benefit 
resulting  from  their  labors  being,  therefore,  mutual,  though  the  orchard- 
ist  doubtless  derives  in  this  case  greater  advantage  from  them  than 
does  their  owner  himself.  Escaped  swarms  lodged  in  forest  trees  in 


FIG.  52.— Heath-like  wild  aster  (Aster  ericoides) .     (Original.) 

the  vicinity  of  the  orchard  are  sometimes  sufficiently  numerous  to  per- 
form the  work  well.  The  great  value  of  bees  as  cross  fertilizers  makes 
their  destruction  a  serious  injury  to  the  interests  of  the  fruit  grower. 
Therefore  spraying  with  arsenicals  during  fruit  bloom  should  never  be 
practiced.  The  injurious  insects  can  be  reached  quite  as  well  before 
and  after  the  blooming  period. 

HONEY  AND  POLLEN  PRODUCING  PLANTS. 

In  the  following  lists  the  intention  has  been  merely  to  indicate  the 
main  sources  from  which  our  hive  bees  secure  honey  and  pollen.  Any- 
thing  like  a  complete  enumeration  of  those  plants  of  the  United  States 


Bu?,  1,  new  series,  Div,  of  Entomology,  U,  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


PLATE  III. 


ALFALFA  (Medicago  sativd). 


or 


1    new  series,  Div.  of  Entomology,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


PLATE  IV. 


ESPARCET  OR  SAINFOIN 

1   9  a  4.  nartsof  flower;  5,  pod;  C,  7,  seed. 


Bui.  1,  new  series,  Div.  of  Entomology,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


PLATE  V 


SWEET  CLOVER  OR  MELILOT  (Meiiiotus  alba). 


3ul.  1,  new  series,  Div.  of  Entomobgy,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


PLATE  VI. 


ACACIA  (Acacia  constricta). 


Bu!,  !,  new  series,  Div.  of  Entomology,  U.  S.  Depi.  of  Agriculture. 


(Prosopis  juUflord). 


iul.  1,  new  series,  Dlv.  of  Entomology,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


PLATE  VIII. 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 


new  series,  Div.  of  Entomology,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


PLATE  IX. 


Cbu/ingdcl. 


CRIMSON  CLOVER  (Trifolium  incarnatum). 


3407— No.  1—05 6 


Bui.  1,  new  series,  Div.  of  Entomology,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


PLATE  X 


ALSIKE  CLOVER  (Trifoiium  hybridum). 


CA 
• 


HONEY  AND  POLLEN  PLANTS.  65 

visited  by  hive  bees  would  occupy  far  too  much  space  for  a  brief  treat- 
ise like  this.  Many  plants  -are  therefore  omitted  which  secrete  nectar 
freely  but  which  are  abundant  only  locally ;  others  are  left  out  because 
they  secrete  only  at  rare  intervals,  or  under  peculiar  conditions,  or  are 
visited  by  bees  only  when  some  better  honey  source  fails;  others  again 
because,  though  secreting  well  and  readily  yielding  their  honey  or  pol- 
len stores  to  the  bees,  they  are  not  often  present  in  sufficient  numbers 
in  any  one  locality  to  enable  the  bees  to  add  materially  to  their  surplus 
stores.  Such  plants  are,  however,  often  of  great  value  because  they 
cause  the  bees  to  rear  brood  during  intervals  between  the  times  of  stor- 
ing surplus  honey  and  thus  keep  the  colonies  populous  for  successive 
harvests. 

Besides  the  main  honey  plants  it  would  be  easy  to  name  for  any  local- 
ity quite  a  number  of  secondary  importance  which  are  frequented  by 
honey  bees,  yet  even  though  the  localities  were  but  a  few  miles  apart 
scarcely  any  two  lists  would  agree  either  as  to  the  plants  to  be  included 
or  as  to  their  relative  importance.  The  following  honey  and  pollen  pro- 
ducing plants  are  therefore  of  wide  distribution  or  of  special  importance 
in  certain  localities. 

For  convenience  separate  lists  are  given  for  the  three  sections  of  the 
United  States  made  by  the  parallels  of  35°  and  40°  N.  The  flora  of  the 
western  portion  of  each  section  differs  of  course  greatly  from  that  of 
the  eastern  part  of  the  same  section.  Only  the  most  important  honey 
yielders  among  those  of  local  interest  in  the  extreme  Southwest  and  the 
West  have  been  included  in  the  lists,  and  the  chief  range  of  each  has 
been  noted.  An  eifort  has  been  made  to  indicate  by  the  type  the  rela- 
tive importance  of  the  plants  as  pollen  and  honey  producers. 

NORTH   AND   NORTHEAST. 

[Above  40°  N.] 

Red  or  Soft  Maple  (Acer  rubruni) April. 

Alders  (Alnus) ' April. 

Elm  (  Ulmus) April. 

Willows  (Salix) -. Apr.-May. 

Dandelion  (Taraxacum  taraxacum  =  T.  officlnale  of  Gray's  Manual) Apr.-May, 

Sugar,  Eock,oi  Hard  Maple  (Acer  saccharum  =  A.  sacchariuum  of  Gray's 

Manual) Apr.-May. 

Junebcrry,  or  Service  Berry  (Amelanchier  canadensis) May. 

Wild  Crab  Apples  (Pijrus) May. 

GOOSEBERRY  and  CURRANT  (Kibes) May. 

PEACH,  CHERRY,  and  PLUM  (Pruuus) May. 

PEAR  and  APPLE  (Pyrus] May. 

Huckleberries  and  Blueberries  (Gaylussacia  and  raccinium) May-June. 

COMMON,  BLACK,  or  YELLOW  LOCUST  ( Robinia  pseudacacia} May-June. 

European  Horse-chestnut  (^Esciilus  hippocastanum) May-June. 

Common  Barberry  (Herberts  vulgaris) May-June. 

TULIP  TREE,  or  "  WHITEWOOD  "  (Liriodendron  tulipifera) May- June. 

Grapevines  ( Fitis) May-June. 

Rape  (Brassicanap us) May-June. 


66  MANUAL   OF   APICULTURE. 

White  Mustard  and  Blade  Mustard  (Brassica  alba  and  B.  nigra) .June. 

RASPBERRY  (Rubus) 7 June. 

WHITE  CLOVER  ( Trifolium  repens) June-July, 

ALSIKE  CLOVER  ( Trifolium  hybridum) June-July. 

Edible  Chestnut  (Castanea  dentata=C.  saliva  var.  americana  of  Gray's 

Manual) ..June-July. 

ALFALFA,  or  LUCERN  (Medicago  saliva) -  -  -  June-July. 

LINDEN,  or  BASS  WOOD  ( Tilia  americana) -  -  July. 

Smooth  Sumac  (Rhus  glabra) July. 

Buttonbusli  ( Cephalanlhus  occidentalis) July. 

MELILOT,  BOKHARA,  or  SWEET  Clover  (Melilotus  alba) July-Aug. 

Indian  Corn  (Zea  mays) July-Aug. 

Melon,  Cucumber,  Squash,  Pumpkin  (Citrullus,  Cucumis,  and  Cucurbita). July-Aug. 

Firewced  ( Erechthitcs  It ieracifolia) July-Sept. 

Chicory  (Cichorium  intybus) July-Sept. 

GREAT  WILLOW-HEKB  (Epilolnnm  any usti folium) July-Aug. 

KXOTWEEDS  (Polygonuw,  especially  P.  pcnnsylvanicum  and  P.  pcrsicaria).  Aug. -'Sept. 
BUCKWHEAT  (Fagopyrumfagopyrum  =  F.  esculentum  of  Gray's  Manual).  Aug.-Sept. 
Indian  Currant,  or  Coral  Berry  (Symplioricarpos  symphwicarpOfi—S.  vul- 

garis  of  Gray's  Manual) Aug.-Sept. 

Thoroughwort,  or  Boneset  ( Eupatorium  perfoliatum ) Aug.-Sept 

Bur  Marigolds  (Bidens,  especially  SPANISH  NEEDLES,  Bidens  bipinnata)..  Aug.-Oct. 

Wild  Asters  (Aster) Aug.-Oct. 

GOLDEN-RODS  (Solidago) Aug.-Oct. 

MIDDLE    SECTION. 
[Between  35°  and  40°  N.] 

Redbud  (Cercis  canadensis) Mar.-Apr. 

Alder  (Alnus  rugosa—A.  scrrulata  of  Gray's  Manual) Mar.-Apr. 

Red  or  Soft  Maple  (Acerrubrum) Mar.-Apr. 

Elm(Ulmus) Mar.-Apr. 

Willows  (Salix) Mar. -May. 

Dandelion  (Taraxacum  taraxacum  =  T.  ojficinale  of  Gray's  Manual) Apr.-May. 

Apricot  (Prunus  armeniaca) Apr.-May. 

Juneberry  or  Service  Berry  (Amelancliicr  canadensis) Apr.-May. 

Wild  Crab  Apples  (Pynis) Apr.-May. 

Gooseberry  and  Currant  (Ribes) Apr.-May. 

Rhododendrons  ( Rhododendron) Apr.-May. 

Peach,  Cherry,  and  Plum  (Prunus) Apr.-May. 

Pear  and  Apple  (Pyrus) Apr.-May. 

CRIMSOX  CLOVER  ( Trifolium  incarnatum) Apr.-May. 

Huckleberries  and  Blueberries  (Gaylussacia  and  Facclnium) May. 

American  Holly  ( Ilex  opaca) May. 

Black  Gum,  Sour  Gum,  Tupelo  or  Pepperidge  (Nyssa  aqua1ica  =  N.  sylvatica 

of  Gray's  Manual) May- 

Manzanitas  (Arctostaphylos)  (California) May. 

COMMON,  BLACK,  or  YELLOW  LOCUST  (Robinia  psendacacia) May. 

Barberry  (Berberis  canadensis) May. 

TULIP  TREE,  or  "  POPLAR  "  ( Liriodendron  titlipifera) May. 

Mountain  Laurel  (Kalmia  latifolia) May -June. 

Grapevines  (Vitis) May-June. 

Persimmon  (Diospyros  virginiana) May-June. 

WHITE  CLOVER  (Trifolium  rcpms) May-June. 

Alsike  Clover  ( Trifolium  hybridum) May-J une. 

RASPBERRY  (Rubus) May -June. 


HONEY  AND  POLLEN  PLANTS.  67 

COWPEA  (  Figna  sinensis) May-Auc 

EDIBLE  CHESTNUT  (Castanca  den(ata  =  C.  satira  var.  americana  of  Gray's 

Manual) June. 

Chinquapin  ( Castanea  pumila) June. 

Catalpas,  or  Indian  Bean  Trees  ( Catalpa) Jnne. 

MAGNOLIA,  or  SWEET  BAY  (Magnolia  ylauca) June 

LINDEN,  or  "  LINN "  ( Tilia  americana  and  T.  heterophijUa) June. 

SOUR  WOOD,  or  SORREL  TREE  (Oxydendrum  arboreum) June-July. 

Oxeye  Daisy,  or  Whiteiceed  ( Chrysanthemum  lencanthemum ) June-July. 

ALFALFA  (Medicago  saliva)  (West) Juue-Aug. 

MELILOT,  BOKHARA,  or  SWEET  CLOVER  (Melilotus  alba] June-Aug. 

Smooth  Sumac  (Rhus  ylabra) July. 

Buttonbwh  (Cephalanthus  occidentalis) July. 

CLEOME,  or  "  ROCKY  MOUNTAIN  BEE  PLANT"  (Cleome  serrulata  =  C.intef/- 

rifolia  of  Gray's  Manual)  (West) July- Aug. 

Indian  Corn  (Zea  mays) July-Aug. 

Cucumber,  Melon,  Squash,  Pumpkin  (Cucumis,  Citrullus,  and  Cucnrbita).. July-Aug. 

Knot  weeds  (Polyyonum,  especially  P.pennsylvanicum  and  P.  persicaria) July-Sept. 

Buckwheat  (-Fagopyritm  fagopyrum  —  F.  esculentum  of  Gray's  Manual ) Aug.-Sept. 

Wild  Asters  (Aster,  especially  HEATH-LIKE  ASTER,  Aster  ericoides) Aug.-Oct. 

Thorough  wort,  or  Boneset  ( Eupatorium  perfoliatum) Aug.-Oct. 

Bur  Marigolds  (Bidens,  especially  SPANISH  NEEDLES,  Bidens  bipinnata)  ..Aug.-Oct. 
Golden-rods  (Solidago) Aug.-Oct. 

SOUTH. 

[Below  35o  N.] 

Redbud  ( Cercis  canadensis) Feb.-Mar. 

Alder  (Alnus  rugosa  =  A.  serrulata  of  Gray's  Manual) Feb. -Mar. 

Red  or  Soft  Maple  ( Acer  rubrum) Feb.-Mar. 

Elm  (  Ulmus) Feb.-Mar. 

Willows  (Salix) Feb.-Mar. 

Dandelion  ( Taraxacum  taraxacum  =  T.  officinale  of  Gray's  Manual ) Feb.-Mar. 

Apricot  (Primus  armeniaca) Feb.-Mar. 

WILD  PENNYROYAL  ( Hedeoma  pnlegioides} \. Feb.-Mar. 

Carolina  Cherry,  or  Laurel  Cherry  (Primus  caroliniana) March. 

Juneberry,  or  Service  Berry  (Amelanchier  canadensis) March. 

ORANGE  and  Lemon  ( Citrus) Mar. -Apr. 

Cottomvoods,  or  Poplars  ( Populus) Mar.-Apr. 

TITI  (Cliftouia  monophylla)  (Florida  and  southern  Georgia,  westward)  ..  .Mar.-Apr. 

Gooseberry  and  Currant  (Ribes) Mar.-Apr. 

Peach,  Cherry,  and  Plum  (Prunus) Mar.-Apr. 

Pear  and  Apple  ( Pyrus) Mar.-Apr. 

Huckleberries  and  Blueberries  (Gaylussacia  and  J'accinium) April. 

Crimson  Clover  ( TrifoHum  incarnatum) April. 

BLACK  GUM,  SOUR  GUM,  TUPELO,  or  PEPPEKIDGE  (Xyssa  aquatica~N.  s\jl- 

vatica  of  Gray's  Manual ) April. 

BALL,  or  BLACK  SAGE  (Ramona  stacliyoides,  It.  palmeri,  etc.  —  Audibertia 

stachyoides,  etc.,  of  the  Botany  of  California)  (California) April. 

GALLBERRY,  or  HOLLY  (Ilex  fjlabra) Apr.-May. 

Manzanitas  (Arctostaphylos)  (California) Apr.-May. 

Acacias  (Acacia) Apr.-May. 

Commou,  Black,  or  Yellow  Locust  ( Robinia  pseudacacia ) Apr.-May. 

Persimmon  ( IHospyros  rirginiana) Apr.-May. 

EDIBLE  CHESTNUT  (Castanea  dentata=  C.  sativa  var.  americana  of  Gray's 

Manual) Apr.-May. 


68  MANUAL    OP   APICULTURE. 

Chinquapin  ( Castanea  pumila) Apr.-May, 

Catalpas  ( Catalpa) Apr.-May, 

MAGNOLIAS  (Magnolia) Apr.-May. 

Rhododendrons,  Rosebays,  Azaleas  (Rhododendron} Apr. -May-June. 

MESQUITE  (Prosopis  juliflora)  (Texas  and  westward) Apr.-July. 

Cowpea  (  Figna  sinensis) Apr.-Aug. 

TULIP  TREE,  or  "POPLAR,"  (Lirioclendron  tulipifera) May. 

Mountain  Laurel  ( Kalmia  latifoUa) May. 

Grapevines  ( I'itis) May. 

Raspberry  (Rubus) May. 

China  Berry,  China  Tree,  or  Pride  of  India  (Melia  azedarach) May. 

WHITE  SAGE  (Ramonapolystachya  =  Audil>erliapolysiachyaQft\\c>  Botany 

of  California)  (California) May-June. 

SOUR  WOOD,  or  SORREL  TREE  ( Oxydendrum  arboreum) , . .  May-June. 

SAW  PALMETTO  (Screnoa  serrulala)  (coasts  of  Georgia  and  Florida). .  .May-June. 

HORSEMINT  (Monarda  citriodora) May-July. 

BANANA  (Musa  saplentum) May-Sept. 

LINDEN,  or  "LINN"  ( Tilia  americana,  T.pubescens,  and  T.  heterophylla)  ...June. 

Red  Bay  (Persea  borbonia  =  P.  carolinensis  of  Gray's  Manual) June.     . 

Indian  Corn  (Zea  mays} June-July. 

Cucumber,  Melon,  Squash,  Pumpkin  (Cucumis,  Citrullus,  and  Cncnrbita) June-July. 

BLACKVVOOD  or  BLACK  MANGROVE  ( Avicennia  nitida)  (Florida) June-July. 

ALFALFA  (Medicago  satira) June-Aug, 

MELILOT,  BOKHARA,  or  SWEET  CLOVER  (Melilottis  alba) June-Aug. 

COTTON  ( Gossypium  herbaceum) Juue-Aug. 

WILD  BUCKWHEAT  (Eriogonum  fasciculatum)  (California) June-Oct. 

CABBAGE    PALMETTO    (Sabal   palmetto)    (coasts   of    South   Carolina, 

Georgia,  and  Florida) July-Aug. 

Japan  or  Bush  Clover  (Lespedeza  striata) Aug.-Sept. 

Bur  Marigolds  (Bidens,  especially  Spanish  Needles,  Bidens  bipinnata) Aug.-frost. 

Wild  Asters  (Aster,  especially  HEATH-LIKE  ASTER,  Aster  ericoides) Aug.-frost. 

Golden-rods  (Solidago) Aug.-frost. 

BLUE  GUM  and  R>ED  GUM  (Eucalyptus  globtilus  and  E.  rostrata)  (California)  .Dec.-Mar. 


CHAPTEE  VII. 
SPRING  MANIPULATION. 

s  The  first  examination  in  the  spring  should  be  mainly  for  the  purpose 
of  ascertaining  whether  or  not  the  honey  stores  have  "been  exhausted. 
It  should  be  early,  and  hence  not  so  extended  as  to  risk  the  loss  of  much 
warmth  from  the  brood  apartment.  Merely  lifting  one  edge  of  the  quilt 
or,  if  the  bottom  board  is  a  loose  one,  tipping  the  hive  back  so  as  to  get 
a  view  in  between  the  combs  will  often  suffice.  Should  there  not  be  at 
least  the  equivalent  of  two  full  frames  of  honey  it  is  best  to  supply  the 
deficiency  at  once.  Without  disturbing  the  brood  full  combs  may  be 
substituted  at  each  side  for  the  empty  ones.  If  combs  stored  with 
honey  and  sealed  over  are  not  in  reserve  liquid  honey  or  sugar  sirup 
may  be  poured  into  empty  ones  and  placed  in  the  hives  at  night.  A 
less  dauby  plan  is  to  use  one  or  more  feeders  directly  over  the  brood 
nest,  supplying  several  pounds  of  food  at  once.  An  excellent  way  is  to 
give  at  one  time  all  they  need  in  the  shape  of  a  cake  of  bee  candy,  made 
by  mixing  fine  sugar  with  just  enough  honey  to  produce  a  stiff  dough. 
This  cake  of  candy  should  be  wrapped  in  heavy  paper  (half  parchment, 
or  such  as  is  used  for  wrapping  butter  is  good)  and  laid  on  top  of  the 
frames,  after  having  punctured  the  paper  in  several  places  with  a  pencil 
or  sharp  stick  to  give  the  bees  ready  access.  Two  or  three  twigs  or 
strips  of  wood  laid  across  the  frames  before  the  cake  is  placed  on  them 
will  also  give  the  bees  a  better  opportunity  to  reach  the  food. 

If  the  food  be  given  in  small  quantities  brood  rearing  will  be  en- 
couraged and  still  greater  supplies  of  food  will  be  called  for,  render- 
ing it  absolutely  necessary  to  give  a  large  amount  at  once  or  continue 
the  feeding  until  natural  sources  fully  supply  the  needs  of  the  bees  and 
brood,  otherwise  both  may  starve.  Three  pounds  of  sugar  dissolved  in 
one  quart  of  water  will  make  a  suitable  sirup  for  spring  feeding.  Dry 
sugar  may  be  used  instead  of  sirup.  The  bees  will  liquify  it  themselves 
if  they  have  access  to  water.  For  stimulative  purposes  honey  is  better 
than  sugar,  " strained  honey"  being  better  than  extracted.  This  is 
because  of  the  greater  amount  of  pollen  which  the  strained  product 
contains,  the  pollen  being  highly  nitrogenous,  hence  capable  of  building 
up  muscular  tissue.  But  if  the  liquid  honey  is  one-half  more  in  price 
per  pound  than  sugar  the  latter  would  doubtless  be  the  more  econom- 
ical, certainly  so  if  a  plentiful  supply  of  good  pollen  in  the  combs  or 
fresh  from  the  fields  can  be  had.  Eye  flour  put  in  sunny  places  and 
sprinkled  with  honey  to  attract  the  bees  will  be  collected  until  new 
pollen  comes. 

When  the  weather  has  become  sufficiently  settled  to  render  saft 
the  inspection  of  the  brood  combs,  or,  in  general,  when  the  bees  fly 

69 


70  MANUAL   OF   APICULTURE. 

the  greater  part  of  each  clear  day,  the  work  of  the  queen  may  be 
inspected.  Should  the  comb  having  the  largest  area  of  brood  in  it 
be  toward  one  side  of  the  hive  it  is  best  to  locate  it  as  near  the  center 
as  may  be,  placing  on  either  side  successively  those  combs  having 
smaller  circles  of  brood  and  on  each  side  of  these  the  combs  containing 
no  brood,  but  well  stored  with  pollen,  while  those  having  honey  only 
will  come  still  outside  of  these.  The  brood  nest  will  then  have  an 
opportunity  to  develop  equally  in  all  directions.  Empty  combs  are  of 
little  use  at  this  time  outside  of  the  brood  nest  as  thus  arranged,  and 
should  be  replaced  by  combs  of  honey  if  the  latter  is  needed,  or  removed 
altogether.  If  the  combs  are  well  crowded  with  bees  and  the  queen 
shows  by  her  regular  and  compact  placing  of  the  brood,  as  well  as  by 
the  quantity  she  seems  to  have,  that  she  is  vigorous  and  thus  capable 
of  accomplishing  more  than  any  ordinary  brood  nest  will  require  of  her 
at  this  time  of  the  year,  a  frame  filled  with  worker  comb  may  be  slipped 
into  the  center  of  the  brood  nest.  This  will  be  taken  possession  of 
immediately  by  the  bees,  cleaned  and  warmed  up,  whereupon  the  queen 
will  soon  have  it  filled  with  eggs.  From  time  to  time  other  combs  may 
be  added  in  the  same  manner.  If  cautiously  and  judiciously  followed 
this  plan,  supplemented  by  liberal  stores,  will  increase  the  brood  area 
and  eventually  the  population  of  the  hive.  But  the  utmost  caution  is 
needed,  for  if  done  too  early  cool  weather  may  cause  the  bees  to  cluster 
more  closely  and  result  in  the  chilling  of  some  part  of  the  brood  which 
has  thus  been  spread.  The  very  object  sought  is  not  only  missed,  but 
the  loss  of  brood  will  prove  a  serious  setback  to  the  colony.  The  escape 
of  any  of  the  warmth  generated  by  the  bees,  as  also  sudden  changes 
in  the  weather,  should  be  guarded  against.  Warm  covering  above  and 
outer  protection  are  therefore  absolute  necessities  if  the  best  results  are 
to  be  attained.  With  favorable  weather  for  the  development  of  brood 
it  is  certain  that  stimulative  feeding,  if  made  necessary  by  the  fact  that 
the  natural  honey  resources  of  the  country  will  not  alone  bring  the 
strength  of  the  colony  fairly  up  to  the  desired  standard  by  the  opening 
of  the  harvest,  is  to  be  begun  six  to  seven  weeks  before  the  opening  of 
the  honey  flow  from  which  surplus  is  to  be  expected. 

If,  however,  this  honey  flow  comes  so  early  that  it  is  likely  to  be  pre- 
ceded by  weather  unfavorable  to  the  development  of  brood,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  allow  for  this  by  beginning  the  stimulation  even  earlier,  so 
that  it  may  be  done  more  gradually,  and  the  greatest  care  will  have  to 
be  taken  to  retain  all  the  heat  of  the  brood  nest.  Should  the  main  flow 
be  preceded  by  a  lighter  one,  especially  if  the  latter  comes  some  weeks 
before  the  chief  harvest,  it  may  be  important  to  watch  the  brood  nest 
closely  lest  it  becomes  clogged  with  honey  to  the  exclusion  of  brood, 
inclining  the  bees  not  to  enter  surplus  receptacles  placed  above  and 
causing  the  colony  to  be  weak  in  numbers  later  in  the  season.  This 
state  of  affairs  can  be  easily  avoided  by  the  timely  use  of  the  honey 
extractor,  since  thp  brood  combs,  emptied  of  the  honey  which  the 


SPRING   MANIPULATION— TRANSFERRING.  71 

workers  in  an  emergency  have  stored  wherever  they  found  vacant  cells, 
are  made  available  for  tbe  queen.  Before  the  main  harvest  opens  it  may 
even  be  necessary  in  order  to  keep  the  combs  filled  with  brood  to  feed 
back  gradually  this  extracted  honey  or  its  equivalent;  but  by  taking 
it  away  and  returning  it  gradually  the  object  sought  will  have  been 
accomplished,  namely,  keeping  the  combs  stocked  with  brood  until  the 
harvest  is  well  under  way,  or  as  long  as  the  larger  population  thus 
gained  in  the  hive  can  be  made  available. 

It  is  in  this  getting  workers  ready  for  the  early  harvest— hives  over- 
flowing, as  it  were,  with  bees— that  the  skill  of  the  apiarist  is  taxed  to 
its  utmost.  The  work  properly  begins  with  the  close  of  the  summer 
preceding  the  harvest,  for  the  first  steps  toward  successful  wintering 
should  be  taken  then,  and  unless  wintered  successfully  the  colony  can 
not  be  put  in  shape  to  take  full  advantage  of  an  early  honey  harvest. 

Good  judgment  in  the  application  of  the  hints  given  in  this  chapter, 
with  careful  and  frequent  attention,  will  bring  colonies  to  the  chief 
spring  or  early  summer  flow  of  honey  in  good  condition,  with  plenty 
of  bees  and  with  combs  well  stocked  with  brood,  provided  they  have 
wintered  well  and  have  good  queens. 

TRANSFERRING. 

If  colonies  have  been  purchased  in  box  hives,  it  is  advisable  at  the 
first  favorable  opportunity  to  get  them  into  frame  hives. 


FIG.  SS.-Transferring-drumming  the  bee3  from  a  box  hive  into  a  frame  hive.     (Original.) 

Early  in  the  season-that  is,  in  April  or  May  in  middle  latitudes, 
before  the  brood  nest  has  reached  its  greatest  extension  and  while  the 
hive  contains  the  least  honey-it  is  not  a  difficult  matter  to  drive  the 


72  MANUAL   OF   APICULTURE. 

bees  from  their  combs,  cut  out  the  latter,  and  fit  them  into  frames.  If 
the  combs  thus  fitted  in  are  held  temporarily  in  place  in  the  frames, 
the  bees,  under  whose  care  they  should  be  placed  at  once,  will  fasten 
them  securely  in  a  few  hours  or  days  at  most.  To  drive  the  bees  from 
the  box  hive  proceed  as  follows:  Toward  the  middle  of  a  pleasant  day 
blow  smoke  into  the  hive  to  be  transferred,  and  after  the  bees  have 
been  given  a  few  minutes  in  which  to  lap  up  their  fill  of  honey,  invert 
the  hive  and  place  over  the  open  end  an  empty  box,  or  the  frame  hive 
itself,  making  whichever  is  used  fit  closely  on  the  hive  (fig.  53).  By 
rapping  continuously  for.  some  minutes  on  the  hive  the  bees  will  be 
impelled  to  leave  it  and  cluster  in  the  upper  box.  A  loud  humming 
will  denote  that  they  are  moving.  The  hive  thus  vacated  may  then  be 
taken  into  a  closed  room  and  one  side  pried  off  to  facilitate  the  removal 
of  the  combs.  The  box  containing  the  bees  is  to  be  placed  meanwhile 
on  the  spot  originally  occupied  by  the  box  hive,  the  bees  being  allowed 
to  go  in  and  out  without  restraint,  only  two  precautions  being  neces- 
sary, namely,  to  shade  the  box  well  and  provide  for  ventilation  by 
propping  it  up  from  the  bottom,  leaving  also,  if  possible,  an  opening  at 
the  top.  When  the  combs  have  been  fitted  into  frames,  the  hive  con- 
taining them  is  placed  on  the  original  stand  and  the  bees  shaken  from 
the  box  in  front  of  it. 

In  filling  the  frames  with  combs  cut  from  a  box  hive,  the  largest  and 
straightest  sheets  having  the  most  sealed  worker  brood  in  them  should 
be  selected  first  and  so  cut  that  the  frame  will  slip  over  them  snugly, 
taking  pains,  as  far  as  possible,  to  have  the  comb  placed  in  the  frame 
in  the  same  position  in  which  it  was  built,  since  most  of  the  cells,  instead 
of  being  horizontal,  are  inclined  upward,  the  inclination  of  the  deeper 
store  cells  being  greatest.  The  comb,  if  not  heavy,  can  be  held  in  place 
temporarily  by  slender  wire  nails  pushed  through  holes  punched  in  the 
side  and  top  bars.  Before  the  introduction  of  wire  nails  the  writer  used 
long  thorns  pulled  from  thorn-apple  trees,  which  served  the  purpose 
very  well.  In  the  case  of  combs  heavy  with  honey  or  brood  or  pieced 
more  or  less  it  will  be  safer  to  use,  in  addition  to  a  few  wire  nails,  a  pair 
or  two  of  transferring  sticks.  These  are  simply  slender  strips  of  wood 
slightly  longer  than  the  depth  of  the  frame  and  notched  at  each  end. 
By  placing  such  a  stick  on  either  side  of  the  comb  and  winding  annealed 
wire  around  the  top  and  bottom  ends  so  as  to  draw  the  sticks  firmly 
against  the  surface  of  the  combs  the  latter  will  be  held  securely  in  the 
frames.  The  midrib  between  the  rows  of  cells  should  be  pressed  neither 
to  one  side  nor  the  other;  thus,  if  cells  on  one  side  are  deeper  than  those 
on  the  other,  they  should  be  shaved  down,  unless  the  honey  will  be  cut 
into  too  much,  in  which  case  the  comb  maybe  allowed  to  project  on  one 
side  until  it  has  been  fastened  in  the  frame  and  the  hive  has  been  gen- 
erally put  in  order  by  the  bees,  the  point  being  not  to  force  them  to  try 
to  manage  too  much  running  honey  at  one  time,  lest  robbing  be  induced. 
In  many  instances  the  comb  when  pressed  into  the  frame  will  seem  to 


TRANSFERRING. 


73 


be  so  firm  as  not  to  need  nails  or  sticks,  but  in  the  heat  of  the  hive,  and 
with  the  weight  of  the  bees  that  will  cluster  on  it  to  repair  the  cut  edges 
and  fasten  them  to  the  bars  of  the  frame,  unsupported  combs  nrre  very 
apt  to  give  way,  creating  disastrous  confusion.  Thus  the  sticks,  nai!c? 
or  their  equivalent  should  always  be  used  (fig.  54).  All  frames  should 
be  filled  with  perfectly  straight  combs  so  as  to  be  interchangeable. 
With  care  in  fitting  in  and  some  trimming  and  pressing  into  shape 
afterwards,  fully  three-fourths  of  the  worker  combs  cut  from  box  hives 
can  be  made  into  good,  serviceable  combs  in  frame  hives.  The  process 
is  much  facilitated  if  such  combs  are  used  in  the  extractor  during  the 
first  season  or  two  after  transferring. 

Should  the  time  be  near  the  swarming  season  the  combs  will  be  so 
filled  with  brood  and  honey  that  the  task  will  be  much  greater,  and  tho 
transfer  should  be  postponed  until  three  weeks  after  the  first  swarm 
issues.  The  brood  left  by  the  old  queen  will  have  matured  and  issued 
from  the  cells  by  that  time,  and  the  young  queen,  if  no  accident  has 


FIG.  54.— Transferred  comb  and  inserted  queen  cell.    (Original.) 

happened  to  her,  will  have  begun  laying;  yet  there  will  usually  be  only 
eggs,  with  perhaps  a  few  very  young  larvae,  present  in  the  combs  at  this 
time,  so  that  the  cutting  out  and  fitting  of  the  latter  into  frames  will 
not  be  as  troublesome  nor  attended  with  so  much  waste  as  just  before 
the  swarm  issued. 

Still  another  plan— one  which  it  would  not  be  best  to  employ  before 
fairly  warm  weather  has  set  in,  but  which  will  render  the  work  of 
transferring  the  lightest— is  to  turn  the  box  hive  bottom  upward  and 
place  on  it  the  brood  apartment  of  a  frame  hive,  having  in  it  frames 
filled  with  worker  combs  or  with  comb  foundation,  arranging  at 
same  time  to  give  the  bees  ready  access  from  their  combs  to  those  above 
and  no  entrance  to  their  hive  except  through  the  frame  hive  above. 
This  can  easily  be  done  by  making  a  temporary  bottom  board  for 
frame  hive,  with  several  holes  through  it,  or  with  one  large  one  ab( 
the  size  of  the  open  end  of  the  box  hive.    As  soon  as  it  is  perceivec 
that  the  queen  has  taken  possession  of  the  new  combs-as  she  wil 


74  MANUAL    OF   APICULTURE. 

almost  certain  to  do,  especially  if  one  of  the  combs  placed  above  con- 
tains some  brood — a  piece  of  queen-excluding  zinc  placed  over  the  open- 
ing between  the  two  hives  will  keep  her  above,  and  three  weeks  later, 
when  all  the  brood  in  the  combs  below  has  matured,  the  box  hive  may 
be  removed  and  the  combs  transferred  to  frames,  if  worth  using  in 
this  way ;  but  if  old  or  composed  of  drone  cells  or  very  irregular  in 
sliape  these  combs  may  be  rendered  into  wax,  after  extracting  any 
honey  that  may  happen  to  be  in  them.  Inverting  the  box  hive  will 
generally  cause  the  bees  to  remove  what  honey  they  have  stored  in  the 
combs.  This  honey  will  be  utilized  in  building  out  the  foundation 
placed  in  the  added  story,  or,  having  these  combs  completed,  the  bees 
will  store  in  them  whatever  remains.  Should  the  queen  fail  to  enter 
the  superposed  hive,  the  plan  may  be  adopted  of  driving  her  with  her 
workers  into  the  added  story,  as  described  on  page  72.  When  the 
lower  combs  have  been  nearly  deserted  it  will  be  safe  to  assume  that 
the  queen  has  gone  into  the  upper  hive  with  the  main  force  of  workers, 
and  the  excluder  zinc  may  be  inserted. 

QUEENLESSNESS  IN   SPRING. 

The  loss  of  a  queen  during  winter  or  early  spring  can  generally  be 
discovered  by  noticing  just  at  nightfall,  after  the  first  or  second  general 
flight,  which  colonies  are  restless  and  continue  to  buzz  excitedly  when 
the  others  are  humming  in  a  contented  manner  or  have  quieted  down 
for  the  night.  The  workers  of  the  queenless  colony  run  in  and  out 
excitedly,  searching  over  the  front  of  the  hive.  Should  it  be  opened 
they  will  not  resent  the  intrusion,  but,  remaining  on  the  combs,  will  at 
once  set  up  a  loud  and  prolonged  buzzing.  These  symptoms  become 
less  pronounced  from  day  to  day.  If  a  comb  containing  brood  be 
inserted  during  this  period  it  will  be  hailed  with  evident  delight,  man- 
ifested by  the  eager  crowding  of  the  bees  from  all  sides  toward  it.  A 
contented  hum  replaces  the  sound  of  mourning,  and  if  young  worker- 
larvae  are  present  preparations,  as  decribed  on  pages  88-89,  are  begun 
at  once  to  rear  a  queen.  However,  if  much  reduced  in  numbers  the 
colony  should  be  joined  to  one  with  a  queen,  or  several  queenless  ones 
united.  The  latter  may  be  smoked  and  simply  shaken  or  brushed 
together.  But  bees  that  have  been  queenless  long  when  added  to  those 
that  have  not  yet  missed  their  own  queen  will  frequently  be  killed  at 
once.  The  queen  should  therefore  be  taken  from  her  own  bees  and 
caged  for  thirty-six  to  forty- eight  hours  in  the  hive  which  has  previ- 
ously been  queenless,  and  her  own  bees  added  when  she  is  released. 
(See  page  94.)  A  board  leaned  against  the  front  of  the  hive  will  cause 
the  bees  to  note  their  change  in  location  when  they  fly  out  and  they 
will  then  easily  find  their  new  quarters  when  returning  from  their 
flight. 


OHAPTEE  VIII. 
SECURING   SURPLUS   HONEY   AND   WAX. 

If  the  colonies  of  bees  have  been  brought  to  tbe  opening  of  a  given 
honey  flow  with  a  powerful  population  recently  hatched  it  will  require 
no  great  skill  to  secure  a  good  crop,  granted,  of  course,  that  the  flowers 
actually  do  secrete  the  nectar.  In  the  ordinary  course  of  events  some 
colonies  are  likely  to  come  through  to  the  early  harvest  in  good  shape,  but 
if  all  those  contained  in  a  large  apiary  are  in  prime  order  at  this  time 
it  is  good  evidence  of  skill  on  the  part  of  the  attendant,  tbis  even  though 
the  weather  and  other  circumstances  may  have  favored  his  work.  To 
secure  a  yield  of  surplus  honey  the  part  remaining  to  be  done,  if  all 
goes  well,  is  merely  to  put  the  surplus  receptacles  in  place,  admit  the 
bees,  and  remove  the  combs  when  filled  and  sealed.  But  if  swarming 
complications  arise  the  whole  of  the  bee  keeper's  skill  and  ingenuity 
may  again  be  called  into  requisition  to  keep  the  forces  together  and 
storing  in  the  surplus  receptacles.  Should  the  expected  harvest  not 
come — that  is,  should  the  flowers  from  which  the  yield  is  anticipated  not 
secrete  honey,  or  should  they  bloom  when  the  weather  would  not  permit 
the  bees  to  fly — of  course  no  amount  of  skill  could  make  up  the  deficiency. 
In  .such  a  case  all  that  can  be  done  is  to  carry  the  colonies  through  to 
the  next  honey  yield  in  good  shape — to  keep  up  (by  feeding  if  necessary) 
the  populousness  of  the  colonies.  The  flow  may  begin  suddenly  or 
before  it  is  looked  for;  it  may  be  excellent  for  only  a  very  short  time,  a 
day  or  two  even,  and  be  cut  oif  short  in  the  midst  of  its  greatest  abun- 
dance. Thus  the  skill  lies  in  having  the  colonies  ready  for  whatever  may 
come  and  a  force  sufficient  to  store  the  whole  season's  surplus  in  a  few 
days. 

EXTRACTED   HONEY. 

One  of  the  most  important  points  in  securing  extracted  honey  is  to 
have  a  large  stock  of  surplus  combs.  These,  with  the  strong  colonies 
of  bees  to  utilize  them,  and  the  honey  extractor,  are  the  great  requisites 
of  the  producer  of  extracted  honey.  As  fast  as  the  bees  can  cover  and 
utilize  them,  these  combs  are  added  to  the  colonies,  one  or  two  at  a  time 
from  the  opening  of  the  season  until  the  brood  apartment  is  full.  As 
soon  as  more  combs  than  the  lower  story  will  hold  are  needed  a  second 
story  filled  with  combs  may  be  added,  or  but  two  or  three  may  be  placed 
in  it  at  one  side  with  a  division  board  next  to  them.  It  is  a  good  plan 
to  sort  over  the  combs  of  the  brood  apartment,  removing  several  of  the 

75 


76  MANUAL    OF   APICULTURE. 

less  regular  ones,  or  if  all  are  alike  as  regards  regularity  and  in  having 
worker  cells  only,  but  some  contain  considerable  honey  and  little 
brood,  these  are  to  be  removed  and  the  empty  space  filled  in  with  good 
worker  combs.  The  removed  combs  should  be  placed  in  the  top  story, 
which,  if  the  weather  and  the  strength  of  the  colony  permit,  is  to  be  filled 
out  with  combs  at  once.  The  strongest  colonies  will,  of  course,  begin 
work  first,  and  can  often  spare  partly  filled  combs  to  be  placed  in  the  top 
stories  of  less  populous  colonies,  thus  encouraging  the  latter  to  begin 
work  in  the  upper  stories.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  in  general  more  than  twice 
the  yield  of  honey  can  be  obtained  from  colonies  supplied  during  the 
whole  honey  flow,  with  all  the  completed  combs  they  are  able  to  utilize, 
than  can  be  expected  from  colonies  that  have  ^o  build  all  of  the  combs 
for  their  surplus  while  storing.  Completed  combs  not  being  available, 
comb  foundation  in  full  sheets  should  be  employed.  During  the  early 
part  of  the  harvest  this  will  be  drawn  out  very  quickly  and  aid  greatly 
in  securing  the  honey  which  otherwise  might  be  lost  for  want  of  store 
combs  as  fast  as  might  be  needed.  During  a  fair  yield  the  foundation 
will  pay  for  itself  the  first  season  in  the  extra  amount  of  honey,  and  the 
combs,  properly  cared  for,  can  be  used  year  after  year — indefinitely,  in 
fact — for  extracting.  The  best  of  them  should  be  picked  out  constantly 
to  replace  less  desirable  ones  that  may  be  found  in  the  brood  apartment, 
or  to  give  to  new  swarms  destined  to  produce  extracted  honey.  Some 
prefer  for  the  surplus  cases  frames  half  the  depth  of  ordinary  brood 
frames,  finding  them  easier  to  manipulate. 

Whenever  the  combs  of  a  top  story  are  nearly  filled,  and  before  they 
are  completely  sealed,  it  may  be  lifted  up  and  another  story,  filled  with 
empty  combs,  placed  between  it  and  the  brood  apartment,  and  this  may 
be  continued  until  the  end  of  the  honey  flow,  and  all  may  be  left  on  the 
hive  during  the  warm  weather.  It  would,  of  course,  be  easier  to  add 
the  new  stories  successively  at  the  top — that  is,  above  the  partially  filled 
surplus  stories — and  this  plan  works  well  as  long  as  the  honey  flow  is 
abundant,  but  when  put  on  just  as  the  yield  slackens,  even  if  but  little, 
or  when  the  weather  is  cool,  the  bees  may  refuse  to  begin  work  in  the 
new  super  unless  it  is  placed  between  the  partially  filled  ones  and  the 
brood  apartment.  Leaving  the  filled  top  stories  on  the  hives  for  some 
time  permits  the  more  complete  evaporation  of  the  moisture  contained 
in  the  newly  gathered  honey,  and  by  marking  the  stories  the  honey 
from  a  certain  source,  when  the  yield  has  been  sufficient  to  get  the 
combs  filled  and  sealed,  can  be  extracted  by  itself.  If  the  supply  of 
combs  is  in  sufficient  to  hold  the  whole  amount  gathered,  it  must  then  be 
extracted  as  fast  as  sealed,  lest  the  bees,  lacking  ready  cells  in  which  to 
deposit  their  surplus  as  fast  as  gathered,  hang  idly  about,  or  if  space 
for  new  combs  exists,  only  slowly  provide  these,  losing  meanwhile  much 
of  the  harvest.  When  sealed  the  honey  will  generally  be  found  fairly 
ripened,  though  it  may  improve  by  being  stored  in  open  buckets  or  cans 
in  a  dry,  warm  room. 


EXTRACTING    HONEY.  77 

The  process  of  extracting  is  extremely  simple,  and  a  little  practice 
will  enable  an  observing  person  to  do  it  well  (fig.  55).  As  indicated 
above,  some  judgment  is  required  in  the  selection  of  combs,  regard 
being  had  to  the  future  condition  of  the  colony.  The  filled  combs,  as 
fast  as  removed,  are  placed  in  a  light  case  the  size  of  a  hive,  or  a  tin  can 
made  specially  for  the  purpose,  covered  closely  to  prevent  the  access 


FIG.  55.— Uncapping  and  extracting  honey.     (Original.) 

of  robbers,  and  taken  to  the  extracting  room,  which  should  bebee-proof. 
It  is  uot  always  necessary  to  use  such  care  in  excluding  all  bees  b 
the  novice  should  practice  it  until  he  learns  to  distinguish  by  the  a 
of  the  bees  when  such  precautions  maybe  Ais^™ 
possible  the  stories  containing  surplus  honey  should  b 
honey  boards  coutaiuiug  bee  escapes  slipped  between 

s-:o7— So. 


78  MANUAL    OF    APICULTURE. 

brood  apartment  early  in  the  morning  of  the  day  before  the  extracting 
is  to  be  done,  in  case  the  bees  are  still  gathering,  otherwise  the  night 
before  will  do.  The  combs  will  then  be  free  from  bees,  or  nearly  so, 
when  the  operator  wishes  to  remove  them,  and  will  contain  no  honey 
gathered  within  twenty-four  hours,  the  last  day's  gathering  having  also 
been  ripened  considerably  during  the  night  preceding  the  insertion  of 
the  escapes.  When  the  queen  has  not  been  restricted  in  her  laying  to 
the  lower  story  by  means  of  excluders,  this  plan  of  freeing  the  combs 
of  bees  will  fail  in  case  the  escapes  are  placed  on  lower  stories  above 
which  the  brood  and  the  queen  may  be.  The  only  way  then  will  be  to 
remove  the  combs  one  by  one,  after  smoking  the  bees  to  quiet  them, 
and  shake  or  brush  off  the  latter  into  the  top  story.  Italians  can  not 
be  shaken  off  unless  their  bodies  are  pretty  well  filled  with  honey,  but 
they  may  be  safely  brushed  off  after  smoking.  For  this  a  single  large 
feather  from  the  left  wing  of  a  turkey  is  best.  Other  races  can  be 
shaken  off  after  smoking.  Eastern  bees  should  never  be  brushed  from 
the  combs  when  extracting,  nor  at  any  time  unless  they  are  gorged 
with  honey.  They  can  all  be  shaken  off  easily,  and  will  need  less  smoke 
than  the  European  races. 

When  much  extracting  is  to  be  done,  top  stories  of  hives  or  light 
cases  with  cloth  covers,  weighted  with  a  rod  sewed  into  the  loose  edge, 
may  be  used  to  hold  the  full  combs  as  fast  as  taken  from  the  hives,  and 
these,  placed  on  a  wheelbarrow,  cart,  or  car,  can  be  easily  transported  to 
the  extracting  room.  The  uncapping  knife,  kept  in  hot  water  when 
not  in  use,  is  passed  rapidly  under  the  capping  of  the  sealed  combs, 
the  point  of  it  being  used  to  reach  depressed  surfaces.  The  loosened 
cappings  drop  into  a  sieve  resting  over  a  pan,  or  into  the  upper  part  of 
a  can  specially  designed  to  receive  cappings.  The  small  amount  of 
honey  removed  with  the  cappings  drains  through  the  strainer  and  is 
drawn  off  below.  The  uncapped  combs  are  placed  in  the  extractor  a,t 
once.  As  the  cells  generally  slant  upward  more  or  less,  especially 
those  built  for  store  cells  outside  the  brood  nest,  the  throwing  out  of 
the  honey  is  facilitated  by  placing  each  comb  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
bring  the  top  bar  at  the  right  hand,  the  basket  being  revolved  in  the 
most  natural  way — that  is,  from  right  to  left.  A  little  practice  will 
enable  the  operator  to  note  the  speed  required  in  order  to  free  the  combs 
entirely  from  honey,  which  will  depend,  of  course,  upon  the  consistency 
of  the  honey  and  the  length  of  time- combs  are  revolved.  While  it  is, 
in  general,  best  to  avoid  extracting  from  combs  containing  brood,  cases 
will  arise  where  it  is  necessary.  If  the  brood  is  sealed,  there  will  be 
less  liability  of  injuring  it  than  when  open  cells  containing  Iarva3  are 
placed  in  the  extractor;  but  a  moderate  degree  of  speed  continued 
somewhat  longer  will  usually  bring  the  honey  out  without  disturbance 
to  the  immature  bees.  Three  persons  can  work  together  very  advan- 
tageously—-one  to  remove  the  surplus  cases  or  combs  from  the  hives, 
free  them  of  their  bees?  and  bring  them  into  the  extracting  room,  where 


EXTRACTING  HONEY SECURING  COMB   HONEY.  79 

two  assistants  uncap  and  extract  the  honey.  If  the  bees  are  not  gath- 
ering honey  and  are  therefore  prone  to  rob,  the  person  who  removes  the 
combs  from  the  hives  should  be  assisted  by  an  active  boy  who  can 
cover  hives  or  cases  quickly  or  lift  the  latter  when  necessary.  The 
combs  when  emptied  may  be  returned  at  once  to  the  hives  if  the  bees 
are  still  engaged  in  storing.  The  slight  damage  which  they  have  sus- 
tained under  the  uncapping  knife  or  in  the  extractor  will  soon  be 
repaired  ;  indeed,  with  a  little  experience  the  uncappers  will  be  able  to 
smooth  and  trim  irregular  combs  in  such  a  way  as  to  render  them 
straighter  after  they  have  been  through  the  extractor.  It  is  particu- 
larly desirable,  in  order  to  straighten  the  combs  of  transferred  colonies 
and  get  them  in  good  working  trim,  that  they  be  run  for  extracted 
honey  during  the  first  year  or  two 5  moreover,  a  good  yield  of  extracted 
honey  is  more  likely  to  be  obtained  from  recently  transferred  colonies 
than  comb  honey,  especially  if  the  manipulators  are  beginners  in  the 
work. 

When  the  extracting  is  done  after  the  close  of  the  gathering  period, 
the  greatest  care  should  be  taken  not  to  start  robbing.  The  surplus 
combs  should  be  returned  to  the  hives  just  before  nightfall,  and  not 
even  a  taste  of  sweets  of  any  kind  should  be  left  exposed.  The  object 
in  returning  the  combs  is  to  have  them  cleaned  up,  and  also  to  have 
them  under  the  protection  of  the  bees  until  cool  weather  puts  a  stop  to 
the  destructive  work  of  wax-moth  larvae.  When  sharp  frosts  occur,  the 
surplus  combs  may  be  removed  from  the  hives  and  placed  in  a  dry,  cold 
room.  An  open  loft  (if  not  infested  with  mice  or  if  the  combs  are  pro- 
tected from  the  latter)  is  a  good  place,  and  it  is  much  better  to  place 
the  combs  so  they  do  not  touch  each  other. 

COMB   HONEY. 

The  general  directions  given  in  the  preceding  chapter  on  spring  ma- 
nipulation to  secure  populous  colonies  apply  as  well  to  those  designed 
for  comb  honey  as  to  those  which  are  to  produce  extracted  honey.  If  any 
difference  is  to  be  observed  it  is  even  more  important  that  the  former 
be  brought  to  the  opening  of  the  honey  flow  with  the  brood  combs  com- 
pactly filled  with  developing  bees  to  the  exclusion  of  honey,  than  that 
the  latter  should  be  so ;  and  colonies  not  strong  enough  to  enter  sections 
readily,  if  at  all,  may  still  be  utilized,  and  often  do  fairly  well  in  the 
production  of  extracted  honey. 

The  old-fashioned  surplus  boxes  holding  25  to  30  pounds  are  regarded 
quite  as  relics  of  the  past  by  those  who  use  frame  hives  and  produce  comb 
honey  in  fine  marketable  shape,  and  even  if  for  home  consumption  the 
pound  (fig.  56)  and  2-pound  sections  are  always  preferred,  since  they 
are  so  cheap,  permit  the  use  of  comb  foundation,  and  are  in  neat  shape 
and  of  convenient  size  for  the  table. 

Section  holders  (fig.  57)  with  sections  folded  and  in  place,  each  sec- 
tion supplied  with  thin  foundation,  preferably  full  sheets,  but  at  least 


80 


MANUAL   OF   APICULTURE. 


FIG.  50. — One-piece  V -grooved  sections.     (From  (ilean 
ings.) 


guides,  should  be  in  readiness  before  the  opening  of  the  harvest.  Forty 
to  fifty  sections  for  each  hive  should  be  prepared.  One-piece  sections,  if 
bought  in  the  flat,  should  be  placed  in  the  cellar  for  two  or  three  days 
before  folding.  If  the  section  back  of  the  V-joints  is  then  moistened 
slightly  they  can  be  set  up  rapidly  without  breakage.  Sections  made 

of  Avhite  poplar  are  by  far  the 
neatest  looking  and  do  not  cost 
much  if  any  more  than  bass- 
wood,  so  that  bee  keepers 
might  show  their  disapproval 
of  the  wholesale  destruction  of 
our  basswood  or  linden  timber 
by  resolutely  refusing  to  buy 
sections  made  of  that  wood. 
The  four-piece  sections,  if  well 
made,  are  preferable  to  the  one- 
piece.  The  latter  do  not  keep 
their  shape  as  firmly  as  the 
four -piece  sections,  which  are  made  with  lock  joints  at  all  the  corners. 
The  foundation  for  sections  should  be  the  quality  known  as  "  thin  sur- 
plus,'7 or,  preferably,  if  full  sheets  be  used,  "extra  thin  surplus."  These 
grades  are  made  of  selected,  light-colored  wax,  and  1  pound  furnishes 
full  sheets  for  100  to  125  standard  sections  (4J  by  4£  inches).  The 
sheets  should  be  cut  no  larger  than  3f  inches  square.  These  will  take 
up  about  three-sixteenths  of  an  inch  in  fastening,  which  will  leave  nearly 
one-half  inch  space  between 
the  lower  edge  and  the  bot- 
tom piece  of  the  section  and 
allow  the  foundation  to  stretch 
while  being  drawn  out.  This 
is  necessary,  otherwise  the 
partially  completed  comb  will 
bulge  as  soon  as  it  reaches 
the  bottom  of  the  section.  In 
cutting  foundation  either  for 
sections  or  frames  one  edge — 
the  one  to  be  attached — 
should  be  perfectly  straight- 
To  secure  this  not  more  than 
six  to  ten  sheets  (depending 
on  their  thickness)  should  be  laid  in  one  pile,  and  a  sharp,  thin-bladed 
knife,  as  well  as  a  straight  rule,  used.  Two  or  three  piles  may  be  laid 
side  by  side  and  with  a  rule  long  enough  to  reach  across  them  all  a 
dozen  to  thirty  sheets  can  be  cut  at  a  time.  Dipping  the  knife  in  warm 
water  facilitates  the  work. 

The  sheets  are  fastened  in  the  section  by  the  use  of  one  of  the 
machines  mentioned  on  page  52.     They  secure  the  wax  to  the  wood  by 


FIG.  57 — Super  with  sections  and  section  holders  in  place: 
A,  super;  D,  separator;  !<,  sections;  F,  follower;  G, 
wedge.  (From  Gleanings.) 


COMB  HONEY — PUTTING  ON  SECTIONS.  81 

pressure  combined  in  some  instances  with  heat.  Fig.  40  shows  one  of 
these.  The  simplest  form  consists  merely  of  a  sliding  lever  hinged  to  a 
block.  It  is  intended  to  be  fastened  by  means  of  screws  to  a  table  or 
bench,  and  is  then  ready  for  use  when  the  lever  is  moistened  with  honey, 
starch  water,  or  soapsuds  along  the  edge  which  is  to  touch  the  wax 
sheets.  The  foundation  is  laid  flat  on  the  top  piece  of  the  section  in 
such  a  way  that  the  straight  edge  passes  the  center  line  one-eighth  of 
an  inch,  and  the  whole  is  then  slipped  under  the  lever.  The  latter  is 
brought  down  with  a  sliding  motion  toward  the  operator  and  at  the 
same  time  the  foundation  is  bent  up  at  right  angles  to  the  top  piece. 
If  the  wax  is  slightly  soft  it  will  adhere  firmly.  A  heated  brick  placed 
before  the  pile  of  starters  will  keep  the  edges  soft  enough  if  the  work 
is  done  in  a  moderately  warm  room. 

Starters  half  to  three-fourths  inch  in  width  are  sometimes  used  at 
the  bottoms  of  sections  to  secure  firm  attachment  of  combs  there. 
Bees  incline  to  gnaw  these  bottom  starters  away  unless  the  top  pieces 
of  foundation  reach  within  one-half  inch  of  them.  Top  starters  an 
inch  or  less  in  width  may  be  used  alone  as  comb  guides  when  it  is 
desirable  to  avoid  great  outlay  for  foundation. 

The  use  of  strips  of  tin  or  wood  as  separators  (fig.  57,  D)  between  the 
sections  insures  straight  combs  with  smooth  surfaces,  thus  convenient 
to  handle  and  ship. 

The  sections  furnished  with  starters  or  full  sheets  of  foundation  are 
slipped  with  separators  into  supers  and  piled  away  ready  for  use  as  soon 
as  the  harvest  opens. 

PUTTING   ON   SECTIONS. 

It  is  better  not  to  put  surplus  honey  receptacles  on  the  hive  until  the 
honey  flow  actually  begins,  as,  of  coarse,  no  work  will  be  done  in  them 
until  then.  Moreover,  all  the  heat  is  needed  in  the  brood  apartment 
during  the  early  part  of  the  season.  The  bees  might  also  become  dis- 
couraged by  the  large  amount  of  empty  space  and  might  not  begin 
work  in  it  at  all  before  swarming.  The  sections  would  also  be  soiled  by 
the  bees  crawling  over  them  and  daubing  them  with  propolis. 

The  bee  keeper  who  is  familiar  with  the  honey  producing  flora  of  his 
locality  will  note  the  development  of  the  flower  buds  of  any  plant  from 
which  he  expects  a  crop  and  will  be  able  to  judge  accurately  by  a  glance 
at  the  colony  when  sections  are  needed.  The  beginner  will  do  well  to 
consult  carefully  the  list  of  honey-producing  plants  given  in  the  chapter 
on  "Bee  pasturage,"  and  also  endeavor  by  inquiry  in  his  neighborhood 
to  ascertain  what  other  sources,  if  any,  are  within  the  reach  of  his  bees. 
The  usual  time  of  blooming  of  all  principal  honey  plants  should  be 
noted,  and  the  management  to  secure  populous  colonies  having  been 
in  accordance  with  the  directions  given  in  Chapter  VII  on  "  Spring 
manipulation,"  the  opening  of  the  first  blossoms  of  any  one  of  the 
important  honey  yielders  should  be  the  signal  for  placing  supers  with 
sections  on  all  hives  intended  for  comb-honey  production.  Should 
these  indications  not  be  sufficient,  there  is  still  another  which  no  one 


82 


MANUAL    OP    APICULTURE. 


could  mistake.  It  is  to  examine  the  tops  of  the  brood  combs  from  time 
to  time  and  note  when  the  store  cells  between  the  brood  and  the  top 
bar  are  being  made  deeper  by  added  wax.  The  fresh,  whitened  appear- 
ance which  such  combs  present  when  viewed  from  above  readily  dis- 
tinguishes them  from  the  yellow  or  dark  combs  wholly  built  during 
previous  seasons.  The  lower  edges  of  partially  completed  combs  will 
also  show  additions  at  the  same  time. 

It  having  been  determined  that  the  time  to  put  on  sections  has 
arrived,  the  quilt  used  over  the  frames  is  removed  and  the  super,  with 
section  holders,  sections,  and  separators  in  place,  is  set  over  the  frames. 
A  clean  enameled  or  carriage-cloth  quilt  should  be  laid  over  the  tops  of 
the  sections,  if  these  are  open  above,  and  this  weighted  down  with  a 
board  which  has  been  clamped  to  prevent  warping.  At  this  time  the 


Fio.  58 — Dadant-Quinby  form  of  Langstroth  hive,  elevated  from  bottom  board  and  slid  back  for  ven- 
tilation in  summer.     (Redrawn  from  Langstroth.) 

flight  hole  should  be  full  width  and  the  hive  protected  from  the  direct 
rays  of  the  sun  during  the  hotter  portions  of  the  day.  With  small, 
single- walled  hives,  such  as  hold  eight  combs  or  less,  it  may  be  neces- 
sary, if  the  hives  are  crowded  with  bees,  to  raise  tliein  slightly  from  the 
bottom  board  or  slide  them  back,  so  as  to  give  small  openings  at  the 
rear.  Mr.  Simmins's  plan  of  placing  below  the  brood  nest  a  hive  cham- 
ber with  starters  only  in  the  frames  permits  the  bees  to  avoid  cluster- 
ing too  compactly  and  yet  to  keep  up  their  work  inside  during  extremely 
hot  weather.  Ventilation  and  shading  of  hives  assist  greatly  toward 
the  prevention  of  swarming,  and  having  bred  the  colony  up  until  it  is 
sufficiently  strong  to  take  advantage  of  the  harvest,  and  having  reached 
the  opening  of  that  harvest,  it  is  desirable  by  all  means  to  keep  the 
forces  together  as  long  as  the  flow  lasts.  (Fig.  58.) 


COMB   HONEY — SECURING   FULL   SECTIONS. 


83 


FIG.  59— Langstroth  hive  with  combined  surplus  case  and 
shipping  crate.     (Original.) 


The  supers  should  be  removed  as  fast  as  iairly  filled.    The  bees  are 

slow  in  sealing  over  the  outside  sections 5  therefore  it  is  better  not  to 

lose  time  waiting  for  these  to  be  be  completely  capped,  but  replace  the 

whole  with  a  new  set.     Some  prefer  to  lift  up  the  super  when  about 

three-fourths  completed  and  place  the  empty  one  below — that  is,  between 

it   and  the  brood  chamber. 

The  objection  to  this  plan  is 

that  by  the  time  the  sections 

placed  above  have  been  fully 

completed    they    will    have 

more  or  less  propolis  daubed 

on  them  and  the  combs  will 

be  considerably  soiled  by  the 

bees  running  over  them.    A 

better  plan    to    secure   the 

completion   of    the    outside 

sections  is,  after  removing  a 

number  of  supers,  to  select 

enough  incomplete  sections 

to  fill  one  super,  which  is 

then  placed  on  a  strong  colony  for  completion,  or  the  partly  filled  sec- 
tions may  be  used  in  the  middle  of  new  supers  as  bait  sections  to  induce 

the  bees  to  cluster  and  begin  work  in  them  at  once. 
Notwithstanding  such  precautions  for  the  prevention  of  swarming  as 

shadiug  the  hives,  ventilation,  having  only  young  queens,  and  the 

removal  of  the  outside  combs, 
substituting  for  them  frames  of 
foundations  or  starters  near  the 
center  of  the  brood  nest,  swarms 
will  sometimes  issue,  especially 
from  hives  devoted  to  comb- 
honey  production.  The  best 
plan  in  this  case  is  to  hive  the 
swarm  in  a  clean  new  hive 
whose  frames  have  been  filled 
with  starters  and  place  this  on 
the  stand  of  the  parent  colony, 
moving  the  latter  to  a  new 
position  6  or  more  feet  away. 
The  swarm  in  its  new  quarters 
will  then  be  joined  by  the  rest 


FIG.  60.— Honey  shipping-cases.     (From  Gleanings.) 


of  the  field  workers  from  the  parent  hive,  and  the  whole  force,  reunited 
and  having  for  some  days  no  brood  to  care  for,  will  constitute  a  strong 
colony  for  storing  honey.  The  super  of  partly  finished  sections  should 
be  lifted,  bees  and  all,  from  the  parent  hive  and  placed  on  the  brood 
chamber  of  the  new  colony. 


84  MANUAL    OF   APICULTURE. 


The  supers  should  be  promptly  removed  at  the  close  of  the  honey 
harvest,  honey  boards  with  bee  escapes  in  them  being  used  to  free 
them  from  bees,  as  described  under  the  head  of  ''Extracting."  If  the 
gathering  season  for  the  year  has  also  ended,  an  examination  of  the 
brood  apartment  should  be  made  to  determine  whether  feeding  is  neces- 
sary, either  to  prolong  brood  rearing  or  for  winter  stores. 

PRODUCTION   OF   WAX. 

The  progressive  apiarist  of  the  present  time  does  not  look  upon  the 
production  of  wax  in  so  great  a  proportion  compared  with  his  honey 
yield  as  did  the  old-time  box-hive  bee  keeper.  The  latter  obtained  much 
of  his  honey  for  the  market  by  crushing  the  combs  and  straining  it  out, 
leaving  the  crushed  combs  to  be  melted  up  for  their  wax.  Before  the 
use  of  supers  late  swarms  and  many  colonies  quite  heavy  in  honey  were 
smothered  by  the  use  of  sulphur;  the  light  ones  because  their  honey 
supply  would  not  bring  them  through  the  winter,  and  the  very  heavy 
ones  because  of  the  rich  yield  in  honey.  Frequent  losses  of  bees  in 
wintering  and  through  queeulessness  gave  more  combs  for  melting,  as 
without  frame  hives,  honey  extractors,  or  comb-foundation  machines, 
the  vacated  combs  were  not  often  utilized  again.  The  wax  from  the 
pressed  combs  was  all  marketed,  since  there  could  be  but  little  home 
use  for  it. 

The  bee  keeper  of  to-day,  after  having  removed  the  honey  from  the 
combs  by  centrifugal  force,  returns  them,  but  slightly  injured,  to  be 
refilled  by  the  bees,  and  at  the  end  of  the  season  these  combs  are  stored 
away  for  use  in  successive  years,  or  he  secures  the  surplus,  also  apart 
from  the  brood,  in  neat  sectional  boxes,  to  be  marketed  as  stored — that 
is,  without  cutting. 

The  wax  must  therefore  come  from  the  cappiugs  of  combs  where 
extracted  honey  is  produced,  from  occasional  broken  comb,  bits  of  drone 
comb  that  are  cut  out  to  be  replaced  by  worker  comb,  from  unfinished 
and  travel-stained  sections  from  which  the  honey  has  been  extracted, 
or  from  old  brood  combs  that  need  to  be  replaced.  Since  the  price  per 
pound  of  extracted  honey  is  usually  not  less  than  one-third  and  that 
of  comb  honey  one-half  the  price  of  wax,  and  it  has  already  been  indi- 
cated (p.  28)  that  some  1.2  to  15  pounds  of  honey  may  in  general  be 
safely  reckoned  as  necessary  to  produce  1  pound  of  comb,  it  can  readily 
be  seen  that  it  is  much  more  profitable  to  turn  the  working  force,  in  so 
far  as  possible,  to  the  production  of  honey  rather  than  wax,  taking  only 
as  much  wax  as  can  be  produced  without  lowering  the  yield  of  honey; 
and  what  wax  is  taken  is  practically  turned  into  honey  the  following 
year,  for  it  is  made  into  comb  foundation,  which,  judiciously  used, 
increases  in  turn  the  season's  yield  of  honey. 

Wax  being  so  much  more  valuable  than  honey,  it  behooves  the  bee 
keeper  to  save  even  the  smallest  pieces  of  comb ;  but  during  warm 
weather  they  must  not  be  left  long  or  they  will  serve  as  breeding  places 


RENDERING   WAX. 


85 


for  the  wax  moth,  unless  fumigated  with  burning  sulphur  or  exposed  to 
the  fumes  of  bisulphide  of  carbon  two  or  three  times  each  month  until 
no  more  eggs  of  the  moth  remain. 

The  old  way  of  rendering  wax  was  to  put  the  combs  into  a  sack  made 
of  some  open  stuff,  weight  this  down  in  a  kettle  of  water,  and  boil  for 
some  time.  The  wax  rose,  and  when  cold  was  removed  in  a  cake. 
This  process,  besides  being  dauby,  often  yielded  inferior  wax — burned, 
water- soaked,  or  filled  with  settlings. 

The  most  approved  method  of  rendering  wax  is,  for  moderate-sized 
apiaries  at  least,  by  means  of  the  solar  wax  extractor  (fig.,61),  already 
mentioned  under  the  head  of  "  Implements."  Its  management  is  very 
simple.  The  machine  is  placed  in  the  sunniest  spot  in  or  near  the 
apiary,  and  all  of  the  wax  cappings,  after  having  been  drained  of  honey 
or  worked  over  by  the  bees,  as  well  as  bits  of  comb,  are  thrown  into 
the  receiver  above  the  wire 
strainer,  the  glass  is  adjusted, 
and  the  whole  is  turned  so  that 
the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  enter. 
More  bits  of  comb  are  added 
from  time  to  time  during  the 
day.  The  melted  wax  trickles 
through  the  strainer  and  col- 
lects in  a  tin  placed  at  the 
lower  edge  of  the  tank  or 
melter.  The  cake  is  removed 
each  morning,  it  having  cooled 
and  contracted  during  the 
night  sufficiently  to  cause  the 
mass  to  cleave  readily  from 
the  vessel. 

The  solar  wax  extractor  can 
be  used  during  four  or  five  months  of  the  year  in  the  more  northern 
States,  and  for  a  longer  time  in  the  South.  To  render  wax  at  other 
times  steam  heat  is  best.  When  available  a  jet  from  a  boiler  may 
be  connected  with  a  barrel  or  vessel  containing  the  combs  and  a  large 
amount  rendered  in  a  short  time.  In  smaller  apiaries  a  steam  extractor 
for  use  over  a  boiler  on  the  stove  may  be  employed  (fig.  36).  The 
manner  of  using  these  extractors  is  simple.  The  cappings  and  bits 
of  comb  to  be  rendered  are  placed  in  an  inside  basket  made  of  per- 
forated metal.  Upon  placing  this  over  a  water  boiler,  into  which  it 
fits  closely,  the  steam  rises  through  holes  in  the  bottom  of  the  upper 
can  and  readily  penetrates  the  mass.  The  melted  wax  runs  out 
through  a  spout  at  the  lower  edge  of  the  upper  can  and  is  caught  in  a 
pan  partly  filled  with  warm  water.  As  fast  as  the  mass  in  the  perfo- 
rated can  settles  away  more  bits  of  comb  are  added.  The  dark  residue 
remaining  is  composed  of  cocoons,  pollen,  and  accidental  impurities. 


FIG.  61.— The  Boardman  solar  wax  extractor. 
Gleanings.) 


(From 


86  MANUAL    OF   APICULTURE. 

These  may,  however,  contain  considerable  wax  which  they  have 
absorbed  as  it  melted.  This  waste  may  be  avoided  in  a  great  measure 
if  the  combs  are  broken  up  and  soaked  in  rain  water  for  twenty-four 
hours  before  melting. 

Cakes  of  wax,  if  designed  for  the  comb-foundation  manufacturer, 
will  be  acceptable  just  as  they  come  from  the  wax  extractor,  but  if  for 
the  general  market  they  should  all  be  remelted  in  order  to  purify  them. 
This  must  be  done  with  care  or  the  wax  will  be  seriously  injured.  Iron 
vessels  will  discolor  it,  and  as  well  or  spring  water  frequently  contains 
iron,  the  use  of  rain  water,  whenever  it  is  to  come  in  contact  with  the 
melted  wax,  will  be  found  more  desirable.  It  is  best  to  melt  the  wax 
slowly,  for  if  heated  too  rapidly  the  particles  become  disaggregated 
and  take  up  a  certain  quantity  of  water,  the  mass  loses  its  luster,  and 
becomes  pale  and  granular.  In  this  condition  its  market  value  is  low. 
Kemelting  slowly,  especially  in  a  solar  wax  extractor,  will  restore  it. 

These  difficulties  in  purifying  wax  may  be  avoided  if  it  is  melted  in 
a  tin  or  copper  vessel  and  in  a  water  bath,  that  is,  the  melter  is  to  stand 
within  a  larger  vessel  containing  sufficient  water  to  surround  the  former. 
As  much  wax  as  possible  should  be  melted  at  one  time,  and  when  con- 
venient the  inner  can  is  left  standing  in  the  water,  so  that  the  wax 
remains  liquid  some  time,  permitting  the  impurities  to  settle.  These 
may  be  shaved  from  the  bottom  of  the  cake  and  remelted  if  they  con- 
tain much  wax. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

REARING  AND  INTRODUCING  QUEENS. 

So  much  of  tlie  bee  keeper's  success  depends  upon  the  strength  of 
his  colonies,  and  this  in  turn  upon  the  character  of  the  queens  heading 
these  colonies,  that  he  needs  to  be  well  informed  as  to  what  constitutes 
a  really  good  queen  and  how  to  produce  such,  and,  having  this  knowl- 
edge, it  will  be  profitable  to  be  constantly  on  the  alert  to  see  that  all 
colonies  are  supplied  with  the  best  queens  procurable.  With  a  queen 
from  a  poor  strain  of  bees,  or  an  unprolific  one  from  a  good  strain,  a 
colony,  even  in  a  season  of  abundant  honey  secretion,  will  give  little  or 
no  return,  while  the  seasons  are  not  frequent  during  which  one.  given 
a  fair  start  and  having  a  large,  prolific  queen  of  an  active  honey- 
producing  strain  can  not  collect  a  fair  surplus  beyond  its  own  needs. 
Admitting  this,  it  will  be  plain  to  all  that  queen  bees  differ  proportion- 
ately in  value  as  much  as  horses  or  cattle,  and  the  keeper  of  bees  who 
does  not  know  how  to  select  and  produce  the  best  can  not  be  called  a 
beemaster. 

When  bees  swarm  they  generally  leave  a  number  of  sealed  queen 
cells  in  the  parent  colony.  With  blacks  and  Italians  there  are  usually 
6  to  10;  rarely  more  than  a  dozen.  Carniolans  generally  construct 
about  two  dozen,  but  under  favorable  conditions  can  be  induced  to 
build  75  to  100  good  cells  at  a  time.  Fig.  62  represents  a  comb  from  a 
hive  of  Carniolans  which  had  built  at  one  time  70  queen  cells. 
Cyprians  usually  make  30  or  40  queen  cells,  but  may  greatly  exceed 
this  number  under  the  best  conditions,  while  Syrians  nearly  always 
exceed  it,  sometimes  even  building  as  many  as  200;  and  the  writer 
has  seen  350  cells  constructed  at  one  time  by  a  single  colony  of  bees 
in  Tunis.  It  might  be  thought  that  where  so  many  were  constructed 
only  a  small  proportion  of  them  would  produce  good  queens.  Such  is  not 
the  case,  however;  for  in  general  a  much  larger  proportion  of  the  cells 
formed  by  these  eastern  races  produce  well-developed  queens.  But  in 
all  hives  some  queen  cells  are  undersized.  This  may  be  because  they 
are  located  near  the  bottom  or  sides,  where  space  for  full  development 
is  lacking,  but  in  many  instances  it  arises  from  the  fact  that  they  are 
formed  last,  and  larvae  that  are  really  too  old  to  make  full-sized,  perfect 
queens  have  to  be  used.  These  smaller  cells  are  usually  smooth  on  the 
outside  and  show  thin  walls.  In  selecting  cells  only  the  large,  slightly 
tapering  ones,  an  inch  or  more  in  length  and  straight,  should  be  saved. 

87 


88 


MANUAL    OF    APICULTURE. 


Yet  good  queens  may  frequently  be  obtained  from  crooked  cells,  in  case 
the  latter  are  large  and  extend  well  into  the  midrib  of  the  comb. 


When  a  laying  queen  is  removed  from  a  colony  during  the  working 
season,  eggs  and  larvae  of  all  ages  are  left  behind.    As  indicated  in 


PRODUCTION  OF  QUEEN  CELLS. 


89 


Chapter  II,  any  egg  which  has  been  fertilized  may  be  made  to  develop 
into  a  queen.  So  also  larvae  from  such  eggs  may,  up  to  the  third  day, 
be  taken  to  rear  from  without  danger  of  producing  inferior  queens. 
Cells  in  which  to  produce  queens  will  be  started  over  some  of  these 
larvae  on  the  edges  of  the  combs,  or,  by  tearing  down  partitions  and 
thus  enlarging  the  lower  portion  of  the  cell,  a  beginning  is  obtained 
for  a  queen  cell.  Fig.  63  shows  such  queen  cells  constructed  over  eggs 
or  larvae  originally  designed  to  produce  workers.  They  are  known 
as  emergency  cells.  The  young  larva  is  at  once  liberally  supplied 
with  a  secretion,  which  is  probably  a  production  of  the  glands  of  the 
head,  and  which  analyses  have  shown  to  be  rich  in  nitrogen  and  fatty 
elements,  being  similar  to  that  given  at  first  to  the  worker  larva. 
This  is  continued  throughout  the  whole  feeding  period,  while,  as  Dr.  Von 
Planta  has  shown,  in  the  case  of  the  workers  and  drones,  after  the  third 
day  the  proportion  of  the  constituents  of  the  larval  food  is  so  changed 
that  they  receive  much  less  albumen 
and  fat  and  more  sugar.  It  is  chiefly 
the  influence  of  this  food  which  causes 
the  larva  that  would  have  developed 
as  a  worker  to  become  a  queen.  The 
latter  has  somewhat  changed  in- 
stincts, and  its  reproductive  system 
is  developed,  instead  of  abortive  as 
in  the  case  of  the  worker.  The  size  of 
the  cell,  and,  to  a  less  extent  per- 
haps, its  position,  no  doubt  influence 
this  development,  but  the  food  seems 
to  be  the  main  factor,  for  small  cells 
built  horizontally,  if  their  larvae  are 
supplied  with  the  food  designed  for 
royal  larva1-,  will  be  found  to  contain 
queens,  and  frequently  these  queens, 
even  though  small,  are  quite  prolific, 
and  show  in  all  respects  the  instincts 
of  a  queen. 

It  is  believed  by  most  queen  raisers  that  in  order  to  secure  the  best 
development  of  the  young  queens  a  colony  should  be  allowed  to  build 
but  a  few  cells  at  a  time.  That  their  belief  is  not  well  founded  is  shown 
by  the  facts  just  cited  concerning  the  large  numbers  of  well-developed 
queen  cells  which  produce  also  perfect  and  prolific  queens.  It  lies 
within  the  skill  of  the  beemaster  to  establish  conditions  favoring  the 
production  of  food  for  the  queen  larvae— the  so  called  "royal  jelly "- 
and  this  having  been  brought  about,  there  need  be  no  hesitancy  in  per- 
mitting the  construction  of  hundreds  of  queen  cells  in  one  colony  if 
such  numbers  are  needed. 

It  was  formerly  the  plan,  after  removing  the  queen  from  a  colony  r 
order  to  secure  queen  cells,  to  trim  the  lower  edges  of  the  combs  con- 


*«*•  m 


90  MANUAL   OF   APICULTURE. 

taming  eggs  or  very  young  larvse,  or  to  cut  out  strips  of  comb  about  an 
inch  wide  just  below  worker  cells  containing  eggs  or  just-hatched  larvae. 
This  practice  gave  the  bees  space  in  which  to  build  perfect  full-sized 
cells,  but  it  had  certain  disadvantages.  Good  worker  combs  were 
mutilated,  often  quite  ruined,  in  order  to  secure  the  construction  of  the 
cells  and  also  in  cutting  out  the  latter.  Cells  so  formed  are  often  in 
groups  so  close  together  that  they  can  not  be  separated  without  injury 
to  numbers  of  them,  necessitating,  if  desirable  to  save  all,  a  close  watch, 
or  at  least  frequent  examination,  for  hours  or  even  days,  since  all  the 
queens  are  not  likely  to  emerge  at  the  same  time. 

To  remedy  this  Mr.  O.  H.  Townsend,  of  Michigan,  devised  a  plan  which 
is  described  in  Gleanings  in  Bee  Culture  for  July,  1880  (Vol. VIII,  p.  322). 
It  consists  in  cutting  combs  whose  cells  contain  eggs  or  freshly  hatched 
larvae  into  narrow  strips  and  pinning  or  sticking  these  on  the  sides  of 
brood  combs  in  such  a  manner  that  the  cells  containing  the  eggs  or  Iarva3 
from  which  queens  are  desired  shall  open  downward.  Mr.  Townsend 
removed  the  larvae  from  some  of  the  cells,  believing  that  he  secured 
better  developed  queens  by  limiting  the  number,  and  also  because  he 
could  then  cut  them  out  more  easily  for  insertion  in  separate  hives.  In 
the  succeeding  number  of  Gleanings  (August,  1880),  Mr.  J.  M.  Brooks, 
of  Indiana,  illustrated  a  plan  for  securing  even  greater  regularity. 
This  consists  in  shaving  off  the  cells  on  one  side  down  nearly  to  the 
midrib  of  each  strip  of  worker  comb  containing  the  eggs  or  larvae 
selected  to  rear  queens  from,  and  then  sticking  these  strips  on  the  under- 
sides of  horizontal  bars  nailed  in  ordinary  comb  frames.  Mr.  Henry 
Alley,  in  his  work  on  queen  rearing,  published  in  1883,  recommends 
sticking  the  prepared  strips,  shallow  cells  downward,  on  the  lower  edges 
of  combs  which  have  been  trimmed  so  as  to  round  downward.  This 
leaves  plenty  of  space  for  the  full  development  of  queen  cells,  the  eggs 
or  larvae  in  alternate  cells  having  been  removed  as  in  the  plans  previ- 
ously mentioned.  All  conditions  being  favorable^  many  cells  conven- 
iently located  are  thus  secured,  and  if  the  exact  age  of  the  eggs  or  just- 
hatched  larvae  has  been  noted  the  time  the  young  queens  will  emerge 
may  be  known  beforehand,  so  that  preparation  can  be  made  for  them. 
Nuclei — small  clusters  of  bees  containing  a  quart  to  two  quarts — are  to 
be  placed  in  separate  hives  and  given  combs,  emerging  brood,  and  a 
supply  of  food,  and  to  each  of  these  a  mature  cell  is  to  be  given.  The 
nuclei  thus  prepared  may  be  confined  to  their  hives  with  wire  cloth 
and  placed  in  a  cellar  for  two  or  three  days,  and  when  set  out,  just  at 
dusk  (p.  117),  the  bees  will  adhere  to  their  new  location.  Full  colonies, 
whose  queens  it  is  desired  to  replace,  may  also  be  made  queen  less  about 
two  or  three  days  beforehand,  and  when  mature  the  cells  inserted 
one  each  in  these.  In  cutting  out  the  cell  a  small  piece  of  comb, 
triangular  shaped,  1£  to  2  inches  long  and  about  1J  inches  broad  at 
the  top,  is  to  be  left  attached  to  it  whenever  practicable,  since  it  will 
then  be  easy  to  insert  it  in  one  of  the  combs  of  the  queenless  colony 


QUEEN   NURSERIES— TESTING   QUEENS.  91 

or  nucleus,  by  cutting  out  a  corresponding  triangular  piece.  Fig.  54 
shows  a  queen  cell  inserted  in  a  brood  comb.  It  is  safest  not  to  cut 
the  cells  out  until  they  are  within  twenty-four  to  forty-eight  hours  of 
their  full  maturity.  In  case  a  nucleus  or  colony  has  not  been  queen- 
less  long  enough  to  make  it  ready  to  accept  a  queen  cell,  the  latter 
may  be  placed  in  a  cell  protector  made  of  wire  cloth  or  of  a  spiral  coil 
of  wire  and  then  inserted  between  the  central  combs  of  the  hive.  The 
lower  end  only  of  the  protector  is  open,  so  that  the  upper  portion  of  the 
cell — the  part  easily  bitten  open  by  the  workers — is  wholly  covered. 

Queen  nurseries  on  the  general  plan  devised  many  years  ago  by  Dr. 
Jewell  Davis,  of  Illinois,  are  used  to  hold  surplus  maturing  cells  and 
the  young  queens,  after  emerging,  for  which  colonies  or  nuclei  are  not 
ready  at  once.  These  nurseries  consist  of  compartments  about  1  j  inches 
square,  made  of  wood  and  wire  cloth,  and  so  arranged  that  they  may 
be  suspended  in  the  center  of  a  colony  of  bees,  a  frame  being  filled  with 
them  for  this  purpose.  Each  compartment  contains  a  bit  of  soft  candy 
to  sustain  the  life  of  the  queen  in  case  the  bees  fail  to  feed  her.  Spiral 
coils  of  wire  somewhat  longer  than  those  used  as  queen-cell  protectors 
have  been  arranged  with  a  metal  cup  for  food,  so  that,  in  principle, 
they  are  the  same  as  the  compartments  of  the  Davis  queen  nurseries 
and  are  used  for  the  same  purpose. 

The  young  queens  will  usually  mate  when  from  five  to  seven  days 
old,  flying  from  the  hive  for  this  purpose.  If  any  undesirable  drones  are 
in  the  apiary  they  may  be  restrained  from  flying  by  means  of  excluder 
zinc  over  the  hive  entrances,  permitting  only  workers  to  pass  in  and 
out.  In  a  day  or  two  after  mating  the  queen  generally  commences  to 
deposit  eggs,  and  is  then  ready  for  use  in  the  apiary  or  to  be  sent  away 
as  an  "  untested  queen."  To  enable  her  to  rank  as  a  "  tested  queen"  it 
will  be  necessary  to  keep  her  three  weeks  or  a  little  longer  in  order  to 
see  her  worker  progeny  and  ascertain  by  their  markings  that  the  queen 
has  mated  with  a  drone  of  her  own  race.  As  both  tested  and  untested 
queens  are  usually  raised  from  the  same  mothers— the  best  in  the  given 
apiary_either  may  be  obtained  for  honey  production ;  but  for  use  as 
breeders  only  tested  queens  which  have  been  approved  in  every  way 
should  be  purchased,  unless,  indeed,  the  purchaser  prefers  to  buy  sev- 
eral untested  queens,  which  can  usually  be  obtained  for  the  price  of  one 
approved  and  selected  breeder,  and  do  his  own  testing,  trusting  that 
among  them  one  or  more  may  prove  valuable  as  a  breeding  queen. 
"Warranted  queens"  are  untested  queens  sent  out  with  a  guaranty 
that  they  have  mated  purely.  If  few  or  no'  drones  of  another  race  are 
in  the  vicinity  of  a  breeder,  he  is  tolerably  safe  in  doing  this.  The 
proper  plan  is  for  the  breeder  to  keep  a  record  of  the  brood  of  all  such 
queens  and  replace  such  as  show  that  they  have  mismated. 

Exact  records  of  the  ages  of  all  queens  should  be  kept,  and  notes  on 
the  qualities  of  their  progeny  are  desirable,  while  in  some  instance! 
particulars  as  to  pedigrees  are  valuable. 


92 


MANUAL    OF   APICULTURE. 


MAILING   QUEENS. 

Queens  are  now  transported  nearly  always  by  mail,  and  sent  to  all 
parts  of  the  United  States,  and  even  to  distant  foreign  countries, 
the  cage  used  almost  exclusively  being  the  one  shown  in  fig.  64  or 

some  slightly  modified  form  of  the 
same.  No  attempt  was  ever  made 
to  patent  this  cage,  and  as  the 
construction  is  obvious  from  the 
figure  given  here,  anyone  who 
desires  can  make  and  use  it.  The 
food  usually  employed  in  these 

FIG.  64.-The  Benton  cage  for  transporting  a  queen      cacres  by  0  UOeil    breeders  is  a  Soft 

and  attendants  l>v  mail.     (Original.) 

candy  recommended  many  years 

ago  as  bee  food  by  the  liev.  Mr.  Scholz,  of  Germany.  The  Scholz 
candy  is  made  by  kneading  fine  sugar  and  honey  together  until  a 
stiff  dough  has  been  formed.  Some  think  it  an  improvement  to  heat 
the  honey  before  adding  the  sugar.  The  Viallon  shipping  candy 


FIG.  65. — Caging  a  queen  for  mailing.     (Original— from  photograph.) 

consists  of  four  parts  of  brown  sugar  and  twelve  of  white  sugar, 
with  two  tablespooufuls  of  honey  and  one  of  flour  to  each  pound  of  the 
mixed  sugars;  these,  with  a  little  water  added,  form  a  batter,  which 
is  boiled  until  it  commences  to  thicken,  when  it  is  poured  into  the  food 
compartment  of  the  mailing  cage.  Mr.  I.  E.  Good  recommended  for 


MAILING   QUEENS — INTRODUCING   QUEENS.  93 

use  iii  queen  cages  a  mixture  of  granulated  sugar  and  extracted  honey; 
hence  this  candy  has  since  been  known  as  the  Good  candy.  The  bees 
fed  on  it  leave  loose  granules  of  sugar  in  the  cage,  and  these  becoming 
moist  often  daub  the  whole  interior  in  such  a  way  as  to  cause  the  death 
of  queen  and  workers.  It  is  therefore  not  adapted  to  long  journeys. 

The  food  for  the  journey  having  been  placed  in  the  end  opposite  that 
containing  the  ventilating  holes,  a  bit  of  comb  foundation  is  pressed 
down  over  it  to  assist  in  retaining  the  moisture,  the  food  compartment 
having  also  previously  been  coated  with  wax  for  the  same  purpose. 
The  cover,  with  perhaps  ajbit  of  wire  cloth  between  it  and  the  bees  to 
give  greater  security,  together  with  the  address  and  a  1-cent  stamp, 
completes  the  arrangement  for  a  queen  and  eight  to  twelve  attendant 
workers  to  take  a  journey  of  3,000  miles.  A  special  postal  regulation 
admits  them  to  the  mails  at  merchandise  rates  (1  cent  per  ounce).  For 
transportation  to  distant  countries  of  the  Pacific  a  larger  cage  and 
more  care  are  necessary  to  success.  A  recent  estimate  by  one  of  the 
apiarian  journals  places  the  number  of  queens  sold  and  thus  trans- 
ported in  the  United  States  annually  at  20,000. 

INTRODUCING   QUEENS. 

Most  of  the  mailing  cages  are  arranged  so  that  when  received  the 
removal  of  the  wooden  lid  and  also  of  a  small  cork  at  one  end  will  permit 
the  bees  to  eat  their  way  out  when  assisted  by  those  of  the  hive  to  which 
the  queen  is  to  be  given.  The  cage  is  laid,  with  the  wire  cloth  down, 
on  the  frames  of  a  colony  that  has  previously  been  made  queeuless. 
In  twenty-four  to  forty-eight  hours  the  queen  will  usually  have  been 
liberated",  but  it  is  safer  not  to  disturb  the  combs  for  four  or  five  days 
lest  the  bees,  on  the  watch  for  intruders  when  their  combs  are  exposed, 
regard  the  new  queen  as  such,  and,  crowding  about  her  in  a  dense  ball, 
sting  her  instantly  or  smother  her. 

Colonies  having  only  young  bees  accept  queens  readily,  so  that  when 
a  swarm  has  issued  and  the  parent  stock  has  been  removed  to  a  new 
stand  the  time  for  queen  introduction  is  propitious.  During  a  great 
honey  flow  queens  are  accepted  without  much  question,  if  any  at  all. 
They  may  at  such  times  nearly  always  be  safely  run  in  just  at  dark  by 
lifting  one  corner  of  the  cover  or  quilt  of  a  queenless  hive  and  driving 
the  bees  back  with  smoke.  The  new  queen,  having  been  kept  without 
food  and  away  from  all  other  bees  for  a  half  hour  previously,  is  then 
slipped  in  and  the  hive  left  undisturbed  for  several  days.  This  and 
similar  methods  of  direct  introduction  without  cages,  having  been 
developed  and  advocated  by  Mr.  Samuel  Simmins,  of  England,  are 
known  as  the  Simmins  methods  of  direct  introduction  of  queens. 

In  the  fall  and  at  all  times  when  honey  is  not  coming  in  freely,  caging 
the  queen  for  a  few  hours  or  days  is  desirable.  A  cage  which  permits 
the  queen  to  remain  directly  on  the  comb  itself  is  infinitely  superior  t 

3407— No.  1— Oo 8 


94 


MANUAL   OF  APICULTURE. 


FIG.  66.— Benton  queon-iiitroduc 
ing  cage.     (Original.) 


any  other.  Fig.  OG  shows  a  pipe-cover  cage  as  made  by  the  author, 
the  size  of  which  may  be  greater  if  circumstances  require-— that  is,  when 
it  seems  advisable,  with  a  queen  of  great  value,  to  include  under  the 
cage  a  number  of  cells  containing  emerging  brood.  Ordinarily  the  size 
here  shown  will  suffice.  The  queen  is  caged  before  a  closed  window  on 
a  comb  of  honey,  with  live  or  six  recently  emerged  bees  taken  from  the 
hive  to  which  she  is  to  be  introduced.  The  comb  holding  the  caged 

queen  is  to  be  placed  in  the  center  of  the 
queenless  colony,  where  the  bees  will  cluster 
on  it,  yet  with  the  end  of  the  cage  pressed 
firmly  against  the  adjoining  comb,  so  that  the 
cage  will  remain  in  place  even  though  a  heavy 
cluster  should  gather  on  it.  On  the  following 
day,  just  before  dark,  the  queen  should  be 
released,  provided  that  upon  opening  the  hive 
the  workers  are  not  packed  densely  about  the 
cage  trying  to  sting  her  through  it.  In  the 
latter  case  she  should  be  left  twenty-four  or 
even  forty- eight  hours  longer,  and  in  the 
autumn  it  is  generally  advisable  to  keep  her 
caged  several  days  or  even  a  whole  week.  If  left  longer  than  one  day 
all  queen  cells  should  be  hunted  out  and  destroyed  a  few  hours  before 
releasing  the  queen.  Feeding  while  the  queen  is  caged  is  a  good  plan 
if  gathering  is  not  going  on  briskly.  Upon  freeing  the  queen,  diluted 
honey  drizzled  down  between  the  combs  will  serve  to  put  the  bees  in  a 
good  humor  for  the  reception  of  the  new  mother  bee.  The  entrance 
of  the  hive  should  be  contracted  for  a  short  time  so  that  but  a  few  bees 
can  pass  in  or  out  at  a  time. 

The  conditions  necessary  to  success  in  introducing  queens  are  com- 
plied with  by  the  above  plan,  namely:  The  bees  are  queenless  long 
enough  to  have  become  fully  aware  of  the  fact,  yet  usually  not  long 
enough  to  have  started  queen  cells;  the  strange  queen  is  caged  a  suf- 
ficient length  of  time  to  acquire  the  peculiar  odor  of  the  hive  to  which 
she  is  to  be  given;  the  bees  are  all  at  home  when  the  queen  is  released, 
and  thus  all  become  thoroughly  gorged  with  food  and  are  well  disposed 
toward  the  new  queen.  IsTo  robber-bees  come  about,  and  by  morning 
all  is  in  order. 

As  queens  mate  only  once  (p.  19),  and  workers  and  drones  live  but  a 
few  weeks  o^  at  most  a  few  months  (p.  20),  if  an  Italian,  a  Carniolan, 
or  other  choice  queen  mated  to  a  drone  of  her  own  race,  be  introduced 
to  a  given  colony  the  bees  of  this  colony  will  soon  be  replaced  by  others 
of  the  same  race  as  the  queen  introduced.  All  of  the  colonies  of  an 
apiary  may  thus  be  changed;  or,  from  a  single  breeding  queen  the 
apiary  may  be  supplied  with  young  queens  pure  in  blood,  and,  since 
these  (even  though  mated  to  drones  of  another  race)  will  produce 
drones  of  their  own  blood  the  apiary  will  soon  be  stocked  with  males 
of  the  desired  race. 


CHAPTER  X. 
INCREASE   OF    COLONIES. 

NATURAL   SWARMING. 

An  abundant  secretion  of  honey  and  general  prosperity  of  the  col- 
ony—with combs  crowded  with  bees  and  brood— are  the  immediate 
conditions  which  incite  a  colony  of  bees  to  swarm.  If  a  colony  in 
prosperous  condition  be  found  when  the  gathering  season  has  fairly 
opened,  with  eggs  or  Iarva3  in  partly  finished  queen  cells,  a  swarm  may 
be  expected  in  a  few  days  should  the  weather  continue  favorable.  The 
first  one  from  a  given  hive  usually  issues  within  twenty-four  to  forty- 
eight  hours  after  the  sealing  of  the  first  queen  cell.  In  the  case  of 
strong  colonies  this  may  occur  in  favored  situations  in  the  North  early 
in  May,  in  the  Middle  States  in  April,  and  in  the  extreme  South  in 
March.  But  most  of  the  swarms  will  come,  in  each  section,  a  month 
later.  When  the  flow  of  honey  is  prolonged  the  period  during  which 
swarms  may  issue  is  also  extended,  and  in  case  a  second  flow  occurs  in 
midsummer,  after  an  interruption,  a  second  swarming  period  may  occur. 

The  outward  indications  immediately  preceding  swarming  are  a 
partial  cessation  of  field  work  on  the  part  of  colonies  that  have  been 
industriously  gathering  and  the  clustering  or  loitering  of  the  workers 
about  the  entrances  at  times  when  they  have  usually  been  engaged  in 
collecting  and  when  other  colonies  no  more  populous  are  at  work. 
Apparently  many  are  awaiting  the  signal  to  migrate,  while  some  seem 
not  to  have  caught  the  spirit,  but  continue  their  field  work.  Suddenly 
great  excitement  seizes  the  workers  that  happen  to  be  in  the  hive  at 
the  time.  They  rush  forth  pellmell,  accompanied  by  the  old  queen,  and 
after  circling  about  for  some  minutes  cluster  on  some  neighboring  tree 
or  shrub. 

It  very  rarely  happens  that  a  swarm  fails  to  cluster  before  leaving, 
but  it  may  do  so  if  it  has  swarmed  before  and  returned  to  the  hive 
because  the  queen  failed  to  accompany  it.  Spraying  water  on  the 
leaders  or  advance  portion  of  the  swarm  from  a  force  pump,  firing  a 
gun  among  them,  or  throwing  the  reflection  from  a  mirror  on  them  will 
disconcert  the  absconding  swarm  and  nearly  always  cause  the  bees  to 
settle,  but  the  remedy  must  be  at  hand  and  applied  instantly. 

When  a  swarm  has  fairly  settled  it  is  best  to  hive  it  as  soon  as  possible, 
lest  others  coming  out  may  join  it,  occasioning  a  loss  of  queens,  and 
sometimes  of  bees,  or  much  trouble  in  separating  them.  The  operation 
of  hiving  may  appear  very  formidable  to  the  novice  and  attended  with 

95 


96 


MANUAL    OF   APICULTURE. 


great  risks,  but  a  little  experience  will  dispel  such  apprehensions.  The 
bees  before  swarming  usually  fill  their  sacs  with  honey  and  are  quite 
peaceable,  so  that  by  the  use  of  a  little  smoke  in  hiving  there  is  seldom 


FIG.  67. — Hiving  a  swarm.     (Original — from  photograph.) 

any  difficulty.  But  to  be  doubly  sure  the  novice  should  sprinkle  sweet- 
ened water  over  the  cluster,  and  at  the  same  time  wear  a  veil  to  protect 
his  face.  Of  course,  the  hive  has  been  ready  for  some  time  and  has  been 
standing  in  the  shade  so  it  will  not  be  heated.  If  the  cluster  should  be 


HIVING    BEES CLIPPING    QUEENS.  97 

on  a  small  limb  which  can  be  readily  cut  off,  it  can  be  laid  down  in  front 
of  the  new  hive,  which  should  have  a  full- width  entrance  or  be  raised 
up  in  front.  The  bees  will  go  trooping  in,  but  if  not  fast  enough  gentle 
urging  of  the  rear  guard  with  a  feather  will  hasten  matters.  If  the 
bees  have  clustered  on  a  branch  which  it  is  desirable  to  preserve,  yet 
where  the  hive  can  conveniently  be  placed  directly  under  the  cluster 
and  close  to  it,  the  swarm  may  be  shaken  into  the  hive  at  once  (fig.  67); 
or  the  hive  may  be  located  on  the  stand  it  is  to  occupy  and  the  bees 
shaken  into  a  large  basket  or  into  a  regular  swarn  catcher  and  poured 
in  front  of  the  hive.  If  the  cluster  is  on  the  body  of  the  tree  it  will  be 
necessary  to  place  the  hive  near  and  smoke  or  brush  the  bees  into  it. 
They  will  go  up  more  readily  than  down,  and  may  often  be  dipped  with 
a  small  tin  dipper  or  a  wooden  spoon  and  poured  in  front  of  the  hive. 
Whatever  plan  be  pursued,  expedition  is  advisable,  and  it  is  best  before 
leaving  them  to  see  that  nearly  all  of  the  bees  are  inside  of  the  hive;  at 
least  no  clusters,  however  small,  should  be  left  on  the  tree,  as  the  queen 
might  be  among  those  left  behind,  in  which  case  the  swarm  would  desert 
the  new  hive  and  return  to  the  tree  or  go  wherever  the  queen  had 
settled,  or,  failing  to  find  her,  would  return  to  the  hive  whence  they 
had  issued,  unless  meanwhile  some  other  swarm  should  issue,  which  they 
would  be  likely  to  join.  A  few  bees  flying  about  or  crawling  excitedly 
over  the  spot  from  which  the  main  part  of  the  swarm  has  been  removed 
need  not  be  heeded.  They  will  find  their  way  back  to  the  stand  from 
which  they  came.  As  soon  as  the  swarm  is  fairly  within  the  new  hive 
the  latter  should  be  carried  to  its  permanent  stand,  and  well  shaded 
and  ventilated.  It  is  better  policy,  however,  to  place  the  hive  contain- 
ing the  first  swarm  on  the  stand  of  the  parent  colony  at  once,  removing 
the  latter  to  a  new  location.  The  new  swarm,  having  the  old  queen, 
with  nearly  all  of  the  flight  bees,  will  be  in  prime  condition  for  storing 
honey,  so  that  supers  may  be  placed  on  it  as  soon  as  it  has  made  a  fair 
start  in  its  new  home — that  is,  on  the  second  or  third  day  after  the 
swarm  was  hived.  If  there  are  uncompleted  supers  on  the  parent  col- 
ony which  has  been  removed,  they  should  be  lifted  over  to  the  new  hive 
on  the  second  or  third  day,  as  the  parent  colony,  having  parted  with  so 
many  of  its  workers,  will  riot  be  able  to  store  at  once.  But  the  new 
swarm,  placed  in  a  clean  hive  with  starters  only,  will  be  in  shape  to  store 
in  sections  at  once  and  produce  the  whitest  combs  and  honey  which  the 
source  of  the  yield  will  permit. 

CLIPPING  QUEENS. 

To  prevent  swarms  from  absconding  and  to  facilitate  the  work  of 
hiving  them,  as  well  as  to  keep  track  more  easily  of  the  ages  of  queens, 
many  persons  prefer  to  clip  the  wings  of  their  queens  as  soon  as  mated. 
The  first  season  one  of  the  large  or  primary  wings  is  clipped  half  away; 
at  the  opening  of  the  second  season  the  other  large  wing,  and  the  third 
season  an  additional  clip  is  taken  from  one  of  the  large  wings,  and  with 


98  MANUAL   OF   APICULTURE. 

it  a  portion  of  one  of  the  secondary  or  smaller  wings.  With  finely 
pointed  scissors  this  operation  can  be.  performed  while  the  queen  is 
loose  on  the  combs,  but  there  is  much  danger  of  clipping  one  or  more  of 
her  legs  also.  If  she  be  caught  by  her  wings  with  the  thumb  and  first 
finger  of  the  right  hand,  and  then  grasped  by  the  thorax  with  the  thumb 
and  first  two  fingers  of  the  left  hand,  her  wings  can  easily  be  reached 
with  the  scissors.  It  will  not  do  to  grasp  the  queen  by  the  abdomen? 
and  of  course  there  should  be  but  little  pressure  exerted  on  the  thorax. 
There  are  some  objections  against  clipping.  The  queens,  being  unable 
to  fly,  are  liable  to  get  lost  in  the  grass  or  stray  into  the  wrong  hives 
when  they  swarm  during  the  absence  of  the  attendant.  They  certainly 
look  unsightly  when  thus  maimed,  and  occasionally  the  bees  are  more 
disposed  to  replace  such  queens  than  unmutilated  ones.  It  is  of  course 
preferable  to  lose  one  of  these  occasionally  rather  than  the  whole  swarm. 
When  the  queen  is  clipped  the  operation  of  hiving  is  very  easy  if  the 
bee  keeper  is  on  hand  to  catch  the  queen  as  she  falls  from  the  entrance 
to  the  ground.  When  the  swarm  is  fairly  out  and  while  the  bees  are 
still  circling  in  the  air  an  empty  hive  should  be  set  in  place  of  the  one 
from  which  the  swarrn  has  issued.  The  bees,  missing  their  queen,  will 
soon  begin  to  return  to  their  old  location  and  will  shortly  crowd  the 
entrance  of  the  new  hive.  When  about  one-fourth  have  entered  the 
queen  may  be  allowed  to  run  in,  and  the  treatment  will  then  not  be 
different  from  that  given  any  newly  hived  swarm. 

AUTOMATIC   HIVERS. 

Thus  far  the  automatic  hivers  have  been  only  partially  successful,  so 
that  the  experimental  stage  has  not  yet  been  passed ;  but  the  practical 
perfection  of  such  a  device  is  looked  forward  to  with  considerable 
confidence. 

PREVENTION  OF   AFTER-SWARMING. 

The  parent  colony,  removed  from  its  old  hive  as  soon  as  the  first  swarm 
issues,  will  rarely  cast  a  second  swarm,  especially  if  a  young  qtteen  is 
at  hand  to  be  introduced  within  a  day  or  two.  The  surplus  queen  cells 
are  likely  to  be  destroyed  by  this  young  queen,  with  the  assistance  of 
the  workers.  A  laying  queen  will  be  readily  accepted  by  a  colony  which 
by  swarming  and  removal  has  lost  its  old  bees,  and  ten  to  fifteen  days 
will  be  gained  in  the  production  of  brood.  Unless  increase  is  especially 
desired  it  is  best  to  limit  it  in  this  way  to  first  swarms.  If  still  less 
increase  is  wanted,  methods  which  will  be  referred  to  later  may  be  fol- 
lowed to  prevent  swarming  as  far  as  possible,  and  such  chance  swarms 
as  do  issue  may  be  returned  to  the  parent  hive.  If  the  queens  are  two 
or  more  years  old,  they  may  in  most  instances  be  profitably  destroyed 
at  this  time  and  young  ones  introduced  from  nuclei;  but  whether  intro- 
ducing young  queens  or  returning  the  swarm  with  its  old  queen,  great 
care  must  be  taken  to  destroy  every  queen  cell,  otherwise  the  introduced 
queen  may  be  killed  or  the  swarm  may  again  issue.  If,  however,  no 


PREVENTING   AFTER-SWARMS — ARTIFICIAL   INCREASE.          99 

young  queen  is  at  hand  and  it  is  desirable  to  replace  the  old  queen,  all 
cells  but  one  may  be  destroyed,  but  this  must  on  no  account  be  jarred 
or  dented.  The  danger  of  overlooking  a  cell  where  the  hive  is  crowded 
with  bees  makes  this  method  somewhat  uncertain ;  moreover,  when  the 
bees  have  once  got  the  "  swarming  fever"  they  may  swarm  again  with- 
out preparation  in  the  way  of  queen  cells.  It  is  also  very  troublesome 
to  remove  supers  to  get  at  the  brood  combs.  These  difficulties  will 
induce  many  who  may  wish  to  limit  the  number  of  tbeir  colonies  to 
prefer  hiving  the  swarms  on  starters  of  foundation  on  the  old  stands 
and  giving  them  the  supers,  while  the  parent  colonies  are  placed  near 
them  with  entrances  turned  away  for  a  few  days.  The  flight  bees  return, 
of  course,  to  the  old  stand.  The  parent  colony  should  be  turned  a  little 
each  day  so  as  to  bring  it  in  five  or  six  days  side  by  side  with  the  hive 
containing  the  swarm,  Avhich  is  on  the  old  stand,  and  make  its  front 
face  in  the  same  way.  By  lifting  it  a  day  or  so  later,  while  the  young 
bees  are  flying,  over  to  the  opposite  side  of  the  old  stand  and  turning 
its  entrance  away  from  that  of  the  hive  on  this  stand,  the  bees  that  are 
flying,  as  well  as  those  that  have  marked  their  last  location,  will  join  the 
swarm;  and  if  the  same  operation  be  repeated  at  the  end  of  another 
week  most  of  the  remaining  bees  will  find  their  way  within  a  day  or 
two  into  the  hive  on  the  old  stand.  About  this  time— that  is,  some  fif- 
teen or  sixteen  days  after  the  issuance  of  the  first  swarm — the  young 
queen  will  commence  laying  and  may  be  put  in  place  of  the  old  one 
which  issued  with  the  swarm.  If  honey  is  still  coming  in,  the  young 
queen,  with  accompanying  bees,  may  usually  be  safely  introduced  at  this 
time  by  shaking  them  in  front  of  the  hive  from  which  the  queen  has 
been  removed,  both  lots  of  bees  having  been  smoked  beforehand  so  as 
to  get  them  to  fill  themselves  with  honey;  or  the  two  combs  between 
which  the  queen  is  found  may  be  lifted,  with  adhering  bees,  and  placed 
in  the  center  of  the  colony  to  which  the  queen  is  to  be  given.  Before 
doing  this  it  is  best  to  smoke  the  latter  pretty  thoroughly,  and  if  two 
of  the  brood  combs  from  this  hive  have  been  removed  a  few  hours  before 
and  placed,  after  their  bees  have  been  shaken  off,  in  the  colony  to  be 
united,  and  all  other  combs  taken  away  from  the  latter,  the  bees,  with 
their  queen,  will  be  clustered  on  these  brood  combs,  and  they  may  be 
lifted  up  without  disturbance  and  placed  in  the  middle  of  the  other  hive, 
whose  supers  and  cover  are  to  be  put  in  place  at  once  and  the  bees  left 
to  quiet  down  and  resume  storing.  Under  these  circumstances  the  loss 
of  a  queen  will  be  very  rare;  nevertheless,  in  the  case  of  an  excep- 
tionally valuable  one,  cages  and  other  methods  are  advisable.  (See 
Chapter  IX.) 

ARTIFICIAL  INCREASE. 

The  time  lost  in  watching  for  swarms  and  hiving  them,  the  occasional 
losses  of  swarms,  and  the  vexations  attendant  upon  their  issuance,  such 
as  their  clustering  in  tall  trees,  uniting  and  killing  queens,  and  the 
delay  in  their  swarming  when  the  time  has  come  for  it,  have  led  bee 


100  MANUAL   OF   APICULTURE. 

keepers  to  devise  methods  which  would  save  their  time  and  avoid  as 
far  as  possible  the  uncertainties  connected  with  this  feature  of  their 
work.  Where  increase  is  desired  the  question  is  one  of  considerable 
importance.  In  the  more  northern  States,  where  the  main  honey  yield 
comes  on  suddenly  and  is  abundant  for  a  short  period  only,  and  swarm- 
ing is  confined  mainly  to  a  period  of  four  to  six  weeks,  or  even  to  three 
weeks  if  the  colonies  are  of  pretty  uniform  strength,  this  question  has 
less  weight;  but  farther  south,  where  the  yield  is  more  prolonged  and 
the  period  during  which  swarms  are  liable  to  issue  is  sometimes 
extended  over  three  or  four  months,  it  is  of  considerable  moment,  and 
the  bee  master  who  intends  to  multiply  the  number  of  his  colonies  will 
do  well  to  follow  some  good  system  of  control. 


DIVIDING. 


The  simplest  method  of  artificial  increase  is  to  lift  from  the  populous 
colony  a  portion  of  the  combs,  with  adhering  bees,  and  place  them  in 
another  hive  near  the  parent  colony,  taking  care  that  the  part  without 
any  queen  should  have  a  majority  of  the  bees  and  should  be  on  the 
old  stand.  If  a  mature  queen  cell  is  at  hand  to  give  to  this  part  a  day 
or  two  after  the  division,  the  new  colony  will  soon  have  a  laying  queen, 
should  all  go  well.  But  this  last  point  will  need  looking  after  ten  days 
or  so  later.  Should  a  laying  queen  be  at  hand  to  supply  to  the  queen- 
less  portion  of  the  divided  colony,  the  queen  found  in  the  hive  at  the 
time  of  the  division  had  better  be  left  in  that  part  of  the  colony  which 
remains  on  the  original  stand,  since  the  old  bees  will  of  course  return 
to  that  spot  and  will  not  as  readily  receive  a  strange  queen  as  will  the 
removed  portion  of  the  colony  which  has  parted  with  its  flight  bees. 
By  introducing  a  laying  queen  when  the  division  is  made  the  deposi- 
tion of  eggs  will  be  begun  a  week  earlier  than  if  a  cell  only  should  be 
given.  At  this  season  of  the  year  this  will  make  a  difference  of  a  good 
many  thousands  of  workers,  and  will  also  prevent  the  bees  from  clog- 
ging the  brood  combs  with  honey,  as  they  would  if  left  without  a  laying 
queen  for  a  week  or  more.  The  supers  are  to  be  placed  on  this  part  on 
the  old  stand,  which,  having  most  of  the  flight  bees,  will  be  far  better 
able  to  store  surplus  than  the  other  portion.  The  plan  of  making  the 
division  nearly  equal  is  quite  objectionable  in  case  it  is  followed  closely 
by  the  main  honey  flow  of  the  season,  for  it  places  neither  colony  in 
the  best  condition  for  immediate  storing.  But  if  only  a  moderate  yet 
continuous  honey  flow,  followed  by  a  larger  yield,  is  to  be  anticipated, 
both  parts  will  have  time  to  become  populous,  and  the  equal  division, 
if  done  in  time — that  is,  before  the  "  swarming  fever"  has  taken  hold 
of  the  colony — will  be  likely  to  prevent  swarming. 


DRIVING   OR   BRUSHING. 


In  case,  however,  some  immediate  work  is  expected  of  either  part  of 
the  divided  colony,  it  is  preferable  to  make  the  division  in  such  a  way 
as  to  secure  about  all  of  the  flight  bees  as  well  as  most  of  the  young 


ARTIFICIAL   INCREASE — PREVENTION   OF   SWARMING.         101 

bees,  which  will  soon  become  flight  bees,  in  the  hive  on  the  old  stand. 
This  may  be  done  by  shaking  or  brushing  nearly  all  of  the  bees  from 
the  combs  of  the  hive  to  be  divided,  or,  if  the  latf-  ^  is  a  box  hive,  the 
swarm  may  be  driven  into  an  empty  box,  as  described  under  "  Trans- 
ferring," in  Chapter  VII,  and  then  hived  as  an  ordinary  swarm,  the 
parent  colony  receiving  also  the  same  treatment  as  described  under 
"Natural  swarming." 

THE   NUCLEUS   SYSTEM. 

Perhaps  the  safest  plan,  considering  that  the  yield,  even  when  one  is 
acquainted  with  the  flora,  can  not  be  foretold,  is  to  follow  the  plan  of 
making  nuclei,  and,  as  soon  as  these  have  laying  queens,  building  them 
up  gradually  to  full  colonies  by  adding  frames  of  brood,  frames  filled 
with  worker  comb,  or  with  comb  foundation,  or  merely  starters,  as  may 
seem  best.  This  system,  besides  being  safe,  has  certain  other  advan- 
tages. It  leaves  the  parent  hives  strong  for  the  working  season,  yet 
tends  to  discourage  swarming,  because  whenever  colonies  become  over- 
crowded, and  before  they  have  contracted  the  swarming  fever,  one  or 
more  brood  combs  are  removed  and  the  colony  is  thus  induced  to  con- 
tinue work  in  the  brood  chamber  to  fill  the  empty  space,  while,  of  course, 
they  are  kept  supplied  with  plenty  of  storage  room  above  for  surplus 
honey.  Furthermore,  it  is  easy  to  exchange  the  young  queen  of  the 
nucleus,  as  soon  as  she  commences  laying,  with  the  queen  of  the  full 
colony.  If  the  nucleus  has  been  started  early,  the  full  colony  will  thus 
secure  a  queen  of  the  current  season's  raising  sufficiently  early  to 
reduce  greatly  the  probability  of  its  wanting  to  swarm  that  year,  even 
though  permitted  to  get  very  strong,  as  it  is  almost  certain  to  do  under 
such  circumstances.  These  nuclei  build  straight  combs  and  may  be 
relied  on  to  build,  even  without  foundation,  worker  comb  only. 

On  the  whole,  a  rational  method  of  artificial  increase  is  preferable  to 
natural  swarming;  but  experience  and  judgment  in  carrying  it  out  are 
required  to  make  it  advantageous.  It  should  be  cautiously  undertaken 
by  the  beginner,  and  the  main  reliance  placed  upon  natural  swarming 
until  the  bee  keeper  is  familiar  with  the  bees'  way. 

PREVENTION  OF  SWARMING. 

The  most  commonly  practiced  and  easily  applied  preventive  measure 
is  that  of  giving  abundant  room  for  storage  of  honey.  This  to  be 
effective  should  be  given  early  in  the  season,  before  the  bees  get  fairly 
into  the  swarming  notion,  and  the  honey  should  be  removed  frequently, 
unless  additional  empty  combs  can  be  given  in  the  case  of  colonies 
managed  for  extracted  honey,  while  those  storing  in  sections  should  be 
given  additional  supers  before  those  already  on  are  completed.  With 
colonies  run  for  comb  honey  it  is  not  so  easy  to  keep  down  swarming  as 
in  those  run  for  extracted  honey  and  kept  supplied  with  empty  comb. 
Free  ventilation  and  shading  of  the  hives  as  soon  as  warm  days  come 
will  also  tend  toward  prevention.  Opening  the  hives  once  or  twice 


102  MANUAL   OF   APICULTURE. 

weekly  and  destroying  all  queen  cells  that  have  been  commenced  will 
check  swarming  for  a  time  in  many  instances,  and  is  a  plan  which  seems 
very  thorough  and  the  most  plausible  of  any  to  beginners.  But  some- 
times swarms  issue  without  waiting  to  form  cells;  it  is  also  very  difficult 
to  find  all  cells  without  shaking  the  bees  from  each  comb  in  succession, 
an  operation  which,  besides  consuming  much  time,  is  very  laborious 
when  supers  have  to  be  removed,  and  greatly  disturbs  the  labors  of  the 
bees.  If  but  one  cell  is  overlooked  the  colony  will  still  swarm.  The 
plan  therefore  leaves  at  best  much  to  be  desired,  and  is  in  general  not 
worth  the  effort  it  costs  and  can  not  be  depended  on. 

DEQUEENING. 

The  removal  of  a  queen  at  the  opening  of  the  swarming  season  inter- 
feres, of  course,  with  the  plans  of  the  bees,  and  they  will  then  delay 
swarming  until  they  get  a  young  queen.  Then  if  the  bee  keeper 
destroys  all  queen  cells  before  the  tenth  day,  swarming  will  again  be 
checked-.  But  to  prevent  swarming  by  keeping  colonies  queenless 
longer  than  a  few  days  at  most  is  to  attain  a  certain  desired  result  at 
a  disproportionate  cost,  for  the  bees  will  not  store  diligently  when  first 
made  queenless,  and  the  whole  yield  of  honey,  especially  if  the  flow  is 
extended  over  some  time  or  other  yields  come  later  in  the  season,  is 
likely,  or  even  nearly  sure,  to  be  less  from  such  colonies,  while  the  inter- 
ruption to  brood  rearing  may  decimate  the  colony  and  prove  very  dis- 
astrous to  it.  The  plan  is  therefore  not  to  be  commended. 

REQUEENING. 

Quite  the  opposite  of  this,  and  more  efficacious  in  the  prevention  of 
swarming,  is  the  practice  of  replacing  the  old  queen  early  in  the  season 
with  a  young  one  of  the  same  season's  raising,  produced,  perhaps,  in  the 
South  before  it  is  possible  to  rear  queens  in  the  North.  Such  queens 
are  not  likely  to  swarm  during  the  first  season,  and  as  they  are  vigor- 
ous layers  the  hive  will  be  well  populated  at  alt  times  and  thus  ready 
for  any  harvest.  This  is  important  inasmuch  as  a  flow  of  honey  may 
come  unexpectedly  from  some  plant  ordinarily  not  counted  upon,  and 
also  since  the  conditions  essential  to  the  development  of  the  various 
honey-yielding  plants  differ  greatly,  their  time  and  succession  of  honey 
yield  will  also  differ  with  the  season,  the  same  as  the  quantity  may  vary. 
Young  queens  are  also  safest  to  head  the  colonies  for  the  winter.  The 
plan  is  conducive  to  the  highest  prosperity  of  the  colonies  and  is  con- 
sistent with  the  securing  of  the  largest  average  yield  of  honey,  since 
besides  giving  them  vigorous  layers  it  generally  keeps  the  population 
together  in  powerful  colonies.  It  is  therefore  to  be  commended  on  all 
accounts  as  being  in  line  with  the  most  progressive  management,  with- 
out at  the  same  time  interfering  with  the  application  of  other  preventive 
measures. 


PREVENTION    OF    SWARMING. 


103 


SPACE    NEAR   ENTRANCES. 


Arranging  frames  with  starters  or  combs  merely  begun  between  the 
brood  nest  and  the  flight  hole  of  the  hive  while  the  bees  are  given  stor- 
ing space  above  or  back  of  the  brood-nest  (figs.  68  and  69)  is  a  plan 


FIG.  68.— The  Simmins  non-swarming  system— single-story  hive  with  supers;  &c,  brood  chamber; 
«:,  super:  st,  starters  of  foundation;  e,  entrance,     (Redrawn  from  A  Modern  Bee-Farm.) 

strongly  recommended  by  Mr.  Samuel  Simmins,  of  England,  and  which 
has  come  to  be  known  as  "  the  Simmins  non-swarming  method,"  some 
features  of  it  and  the  combination  into  a  well-defined  method  having 
been  original  with  him.  It  is  an 
excellent  preventive  measure, 
though  not  invariably  successful 
even  when  the  distinctive  fea- 
tures brought  forward  promi- 
nently by  Mr.  Simmins — empty 
space  between  the  brood  combs 
and  entrance,  together  with  the 
employment  of  drawn  combs  in 
the  supers— are  supplemented 
by  other  measures  already  men- 
tioned; but  when,  in  addition  to 
the  space  between  the  brood  and 
the  flight  hole,  the  precaution  be 
taken  to  get  supers  on  in  time, 
to  ventilate  the  hive  well,  and  to 
keep  queens  not  over  two  years 
old,  swarming  will  be  very 
limited.  If  to  these  precautions 
be  added  that  of  substituting  for 


FIG.  69.— The  Simniius  non-swarming  system— 
double-story  hive  with  supers;  be,  brood  chamber; 
so,  supers ;  st,  chamber  with  starters ;  e,  entrance. 
(Redrawn  from  A  Modern  Bee-Farm.) 


the  old  queens  young  ones  of  the  current  season's  raising,  before  swam 
ing  has  begun,  practical  immunity  from  swarming  is  generally  insured. 


104 


MANUAL    OF   APICULTURE. 


LANGDON   NON-SWARMING    DEVICE. 

This  device  (fig.  70,  7>),  first  described  and  illustrated  in  Insect  Life 
for  April,  1893  (Vol.  V,  No.  4),  is  designed  to  do  more  than  merely  pre- 
vent swarming.  The  following  claims  are  made  by  the  inventor: 

(1)  It  prevents  all  swarming  without  caging  queens,  cutting  out  queen  cells  or 
manipulation  of  brood  combs. 

(2)  Two  light  colonies  that  would  not  do  much  in  sections  if  working  separately 
make  one  good  one  by  running  the  field  force  of  both  into  the  same  set  of  supers. 

(3)  No  bait  sections  are  needed,  as  the  bees  can  be  crowded  into  the  sections  with- 
out swarming. 

(4)  The  honey  will  be  finished  in  better  condition,  that  is,  with  less  travel  stain, 
because  the  union  of  the  field  forces  enables  them  to  complete  the  work  in  less  time. 

(5)  There  will  be  fewer  unfinished  sections  at  the  close  of  the  honey  harvest  for 
the  reason  just  mentioned. 


FIG.  70. — Beehives  with  Langdon  non-swarmer  attached:  A,  B,  hives;  S.  S',  supers ;  D, non-swarming 
device;  e,  e',  entrances  corresponding  to  hive  entrances;  si,  slide  for  closing  entrance;  c,  c',  conical 
wire-cloth  bee-escapes ;  ex,  ex1,  exits  of  same.  (From  Insect  Life.) 

(6)  Also  for  the  same  reason  honey  can  be  taken  off  by  the  full  case  instead  of  by 
the  section  or  holderful. 

(7)  Drones  will  be  fewer  in  number,  as  a  double  handful  will  often  be  killed  off  in 
the  closed  hive  while  the  other  is  storing  honey  rapidly. 

(8)  Artificial  swarms  and  nuclei  can  be  more  easily  made,  as  combs  of  brood  and 
bees  can  be  taken  from  the   closed   hive   in  which   the  queen  can  be  found  very 
quickly. 

(9)  It  enables  one  to  care  for  more  than  twice  as  many  colonies  as  under  the 
swarming  system. 

Eesults  according  with  the  claims  mentioned  above  have  been  reported 
from  various  localities,  but  numerous  adverse  reports  have  also  been 
given,  the  latter  indicating  clearly  that  some  modification  of  the  device 
is  necessary  if  it  is  to  be  made  generally  serviceable.  A  further  trial 
of  the  principle  under  varying  conditions  and  climates  will  also  be 
required  to  decide  its  exact  value. 


PREVENTION   OF    SWARMING.  105 

The  manner  of  using  the  device  is  simple.  Before  the  colonies  swarm 
the  device  is  attached  to  the  fronts  of  two  adjacent  hives.  The  slide 
(fig.  70,  si)  having  been  inserted  at  one  end  of  the  device,  the  bees 
returning  from  the  fields  are  all  run  into  the  other  hive,  on  which  the 
supers  are  then  placed.  Before  the  colony,  thus  made  doubly  populous, 
decides  to  swarm,  the  slide  and  supers  are  both  changed  to  the  other 
hive.  This  is  repeated  every  four  or  five  days  during  the  swarming 
period. 

SELECTION   IN   BREEDING. 

Some  races  of  bees  show  greater  inclination  than  others  toward 
swarming,  and  the  same  difference  can  be  noted  between  individual 
colonies  of  a  given  race;  therefore,  whatever  methods  be  adopted  to 
prevent  or  limit  increase,  no  doubt  the  constant  selection  of  those 
queens  to  breed  from  whose  workers  show  the  least  tendency  toward 
swarming  would  in  time  greatly  reduce  this  disposition.  Indeed,  it  is 
perfectly  consistent  to  believe  that  persistent  effort,  coupled  with  rigid 
and  intelligent  selection,  will  eventually  result  in  a  strain  of  bees  quite 
as  much  entitled  to  be  termed  non-swarming  as  certain  breeds  of  fowls 
which  have  been  produced  by  artificial  selection  are  to  be  called  non- 
sitters.  These  terms  are  of  course  only  relative,  being  merely  indica- 
tive of  the  possession  of  a  certain  disposition  in  a  less  degree  than  that 
shown  by  others  of  the  same  species.  It  might  never  be  possible  to 
change  the  nature  of  our  honey  bees  so  completely  that  they  would 
never  swarm  under  any  circumstances,  and  even  if  possible  it  would 
take  a  long  period,  so  strongly  implanted  seems  this  instinct.  But  to 
modify  it  is  within  the  reach  of  any  intelligent  breeder  who  will  persist- 
ently make  the  effort.  Such  work  should  be  undertaken  in  experi- 
mental apiaries  where  its  continuance  when  a  single  point  has  been 
gained  will  not  be  affected  by  the  changes  of  individual  fortunes. 

Many  features  connected  with  swarming  still  remain  mysteries.  The 
whole  subject  requires  still  more  study,  and  its  full  elucidation  would 
no  doubt  be  of  great  practical  value  to  apiculture.  The  field  is  inviting. 


CHAPTER  XI. 
WINTERING  BEES. 

There  will  be  little  complaint  of  losses  in  wintering  bees,  whether  in 
a  cold  climate  or  a  warm  one,  whether  indoors  or  outside,  provided  the 
following  points  are  observed  with  each  colony: 

(1)  The  colony  must  have  a  good  queen. — By  a  good  queen  is  meant  one 
not  over  two  years  old  and  which  shows  no  signs  of  failure  during  the 
latter  part  of  the  season.     It  is  preferable  to  have  a  queen  of  the  cur- 
rent season's  raising.     Such  a  queen,  if  reared  from  good  stock  and 
under  good  conditions  during  the  latter  part  of  the  summer,  will  be  in 
her  prime  the  following  spring,  and  if  no  other  conditions  are  lacking 
will  have  her  colony  strong  for  the  harvest. 

(2)  Plenty  of  good  lees. — Bees  that  are  several  mouths  old  or  that 
have  gathered  a  heavy  fall  harvest  of  honey  are  not  good  to  depend 
upon  for  the  winter.     They  drop  off  gradually  of  old  age  before  there 
are  young  bees  to  fill  their  places,  and  the  queen,  however  prolific,  not 
having  bees  enough  to  cover  her  eggs,  can  not  bring  up,  as  she  other- 
wise would,  the  strength  of  the  colony  to  a  proper  standard  in  time 
for  the  harvest.     There  should  be  young  bees  emerging  at  all  times  up 
to  the  month  of  October,  or,  in  the  South,  even  later. 

(3)  Good  food  and  plenty  of  it. — Any  well-ripened  sealed  honey  that 
is  not  crystallized  is  good  winter  food.     Honeydew  stored  by  bees  and 
honey  from  a  few  flowers  (cruciferous  plants,  asters,  etc.)  crystallizes  in 
the  combs  soon  after  it  is  gathered  and  the  bees  are  obliged  to  liquefy 
it  as  they  use  it.     They  can  not  do  this  well  in  dry,  cold  weather,  and 
dampness  within  the  hive,  though  it  might  enable  the  bees  to  liquefy 
the  crystallized  honey,  is  otherwise  inimical  to  bee  life,  especially  so 
during  winter.     Some  of  the  crystallized  food  is  also  wasted;  hence  the 
bees  may  starve  even  though  the  fall  weight  indicated  sufficient  stores 
for  winter.    Disastrous  results  are  very  likely,  therefore,  to  follow  the 
attempt  to  winter  on  such  food. 

The  removal  of  all  pollen  when  preparing  bees  for  winter  has  been 
advised  by  some,  who  assert  that  it  is  unfit  winter  food  and  produces 
dysentery.  It  will  not,  of  course,  alone  sustain  the  life  of  the  adult  bees, 
but  if  all  conditions  are  right  no  more  of  it  will  be  eaten  than  the  bees 
require  to  repair  the  waste  of  bodily  tissue,  and  this  being  slight  in 
winter  the  consumption  is  small  as  long  as  other  food  lasts.  The  pollen 
grains  which  by  accident  find  their  way  into  honey  as  the  bees  gather 
it  would  probably  be  quite  sufficient  to  supply  this  waste  in  the  case  of 
the  adult  workers  and  no  harm  would  result  to  these  bees  from  the 
106 


WINTER    FOOD    FOR    BEES. 


107 


substitution  of  other  combs  for  those  containing  pollen.  But  good  col- 
onies should  begin  brood  rearing  in  January  or  February,  and  pollen  or 
a  suitable  substitute  for  it  containing  nitrogen  must  then  be  present 
or  the  nurse  bees  will  be  subjected  to  a  fearful  drain  on  their  vitality 
to  supply  the  rich  nitrogenous  secretion  required  by  the  developing 
larva?;  in  fact,  they  can  not  do  so  long,  and  the  colony  dwindles.  This 
absurd  theory  that  bees  can  not  have  access  to  pollen  in  winter  without 
detrimental  results  can  best  be  answered  by  referring  to  the  well-known 
fact  that  a  colony  in  a  large  box  or  straw  hive,  freely  ventilated,  yet 
having  some  part  of  the  hive  protected  from  drafts  of  air  and  kept  dry, 
will  almost  invariably  come  out  strong  in  the  spring  if  populous  in  the 
fall,  heavy  with  honey,  and  having  a  young  and  vigorous  queen.  The 


WATER-   - 


-••  v.  SUGAR-.  •.- 


FIG.  71.— Percolator  for  preparation  of  winter  food.     (Original.) 

pollen,  it  could  not  possibly  be  claimed,  had  been  injurious  to  such 
colonies,  although  they  always  gather  and  store  it  without  restriction, 
and  are  not  disturbed  in  the  possession  of  it.  In  truth,  their  stores  of 
pollen  have  constituted  an  important  factor  in  their  development,  and 
the  strong  instinct  which  they  have  toward  making  accumulations  of 
pollen  for  winter  use  and  which  they  have  exercised  for  thousands 
of  years  undisturbed  is  of  great  benefit  to  them. 

Other  conditions  being  equal,  those  colonies  having  the  most  honey 
stored  compactly  in  the  brood  apartment  and  close  about  the  very 
center  where  the  last  brood  of  young  bees  should  emerge,  are  the  ones 
which  will  winter  best.  Forty  pounds  for  a  northern  latitude  and  :!<) 
in  the  middle  sections  of  the  United  States  may  be  considered  only  a 


108 


MANUAL    OF    APICULTURE. 


FIG.  72. — The  American   straw  Live  of  Hayek 
Bros. 


good  supply.  When  natural  stores  are  found  to  be  lacking  in  the 
brood  chamber,  the  best  substitute  is  a  sirup  made  of  granulated  sugar, 
which  should  be  fed  early  in  the  autumn  as  rapidly  as  the  bees  can 

manipulate  it  and  store  it  away.  If 
given  slowly  the  bees  will  be  incited 
to  rear  brood  unseasonably,  and  will 
consume  much  of  the  food  in  this 
way.  If  several  pounds  be  given 
at  a  time — placed  in  the  top  story  of 
the  colony  to  be  fed,  just  at  night- 
fall— it  will  be  stored  away  quickly, 
so  that  in  a  week  at  most  the  full 
winter  stores  will  be  completed. 
The  bees  will  seal  it  over  better  if  fed 
slowly  at  the  last;  that  is,  after  the 
main  feeding.  Sirup  made  by  per- 
colation of  cold  water  through  a 
mass  of  sugar  and  then  through  some  porous  material,  as  cotton,  is  what 
is  called  a  completely  saturated  solution ;  that  is,  it  contains  all  the  sugar 
the  water  can  be  made  to  hold,  and  will  not  trouble  by  granulation  (tig. 
71).  The  same  difficulty  is  avoided 
by  adding  well-ripened  honey  to 
moderately  thick  sirup,  about  one- 
fourth  or  one-fifth  as  much  honey 
as  sirup.  Molasses,  brown  sugar, 
glucose,  etc.,  are  not  suitable  for 
winter  stores  for  bees. 

It  is  poor  policy  to  permit  bees  to 
enter  winter  quarters  without  an 
abundance  of  stores— better  twice 
the  amount  that  will  be  actually 
consumed  than  merely  enough  to 
enable  them  to  live  through. 

(4)  The  bees  must  be  kept  dry  and 
K((rm.—A  substantial  hive  with  a 
tight  roof  will  keep  rain  and  snow 
from  the  cluster;  but  the  bees  must 
have  air  even  during  the  severest 
weather  and  also  when  in  their  most 
quiescent  state;  hence  the  question 
ol  ventilation  has  to  be  considered. 
It  has  occasioned  more  discussion 
and  experimentation  than  any  other 
point  concerned  in  the  wintering  of  bees.  The  amount  of  ventilation 
both  indoors  and  outside,  whether  upward  ventilation  or  lower  ventila- 
tion, or  both,  and  whether  through  the  wooden  walls  of  the  hive  alone, 


FIG.  73. — Davis  hive  with  newspapers  packed 
between  inner  and  outer  cases,  and  brood 
I  nnnes  on  end  for  the  winter.  (Original.) 


WARMTH,  DRYNESS   AND    QUIET    FOR   WINTER.  109 

have  given  rise  to  thousands  of  experiments  based  on  all  sorts  of  theo- 
ries, and  innumerable  losses  have  resulted.  The  matter  is  really  more 
complicated  than  would  seem  at  first  thought.  The  warm  air  about  the 
bodies  of  the  bees  (the  winter  temperature  of  the  cluster  being  about 
72°  F.)  coming  in  contact  with  the  cold  surfaces  of  combs  of  honey  in 
ordinary  hives,  or  with  the  inner  walls  of  such  hives,  condensation  and 
deposition  of  moisture  occurs.  During  severe  weather  this  accumulates 
in  the  shape  of  hoarfrost,,  which,  melting  with  a  rise  of  temperature, 
trickles  down  over  the  combs,  the  walls  of  the  hive,  and  the  bees  them- 
selves, and,  entering  the  honey  cells  through  the  somewhat  porous  cap- 
ping, sours  the  honey  with  which  it  mixes.  The  soured  food,  dampness, 
and  chilling  of  the  bees  combine  to  bring  on  diarrhea,  which  is  sure  to 
weaken, and  decimate  the  colony  if  it  does  not  exterminate  it.  To 
avoid  these  troubles  the  surplus  moisture  of  the  hive  must  be  carried 
away  by  free  ventilation,  which  at  the  same  time  supplies  pure  air,  but 
which  does  not  create  drafts  in  the 
hive  nor  permit  such  an  escape  of 
heat  as  will  chill  the  cluster  through. 
Straw  hives  (fig.  72)  do  this  well ;  also 
the  forms  shown  in  figs.  73  and  74 
if  well  packed  over  the  combs  and 
ventilated  above  the  packing. 

( o )  There  shou  Id  be  no  manipulation 
out  of  season. — Breaking  up  the  clus- 
ter and  exposing  the  individual  bees  r^Z-Doubie-w^ed  hive  adapted  to  out- 

and    their    COlllbs    to  a    lOW    tempera-          door  wintering  as  well  as  summer  use  below 

40°    north    latitude    in    the"  United   States. 

ture,  as  Well  as  Causing  them  tO  gorge  Thickness  of  each  wall,  |  inch;  space  be- 
themselves  With  honey  When  an  Op-  tween  walls,  2  inches,  packed  with  dry  chaff 

or  ground  cork.     (Original.) 

portunity  for  a  cleansing  flight  may 

not  occur  soon,  are  also  causes  Avhich  bring  on  diarrheal  difficulties. 
Feeding  to  complete  the  winter  stores,  when  necessary,  should  be  done 
soon  after  the  last  honey  flow,  so  that  the  bees  \vill  settle  down  for 
the  winter  on  the  approach  of  cool  autumn  days.  After  this  they  are 
better  off  if  left  undisturbed  until  the  final  work  of  preparing  them 
for  winter  is  done,  which,  if  the  hive  is  well  arranged,  will  be  no 
material  disturbance  to  the  bees.  It  is  always  preferable  not  to  be 
obliged  to  touch  the  brood  combs  or  disturb  the  cluster  when  the 
weather  is  too  cold  for  the  bees  to  fly  freely. 

OUTDOOR   WINTERING. 

A  consideration  of  the  requirements  above  mentioned  leads  at  once 
to  the  essential  features  of  any  plan  of  outdoor  wintering. that  may  be 
followed  in  the  colder  portions  of  our  country  with  uniform  success, 
namely,  the  presence  in  the  colony  of  a  vigorous  queen  less  than  two 
years  old ;  a  good  cluster  of  healthy  bees  bred  the  latter  part  of  the 
season,  that  is,  of  sufficient  numbers  so  that  when  closely  clustered 
3407— No.  1—05 9 


110  MANUAL    OF    APICULTURE. 

during  quite  cool  weather  ]ate  in  October  or  November  not  less  than 
six  spaces  between  the  brood  combs,  and  preferably  eight  or  nine 
spaces,  shall  be  occupied  by  a  good  number  of  bees,  or  that  the  cluster 
shall  be  at  such  a  time  not  less  than  8,  and  preferably  10  to  12,  inches 
in  diameter;  the  stores  should  consist  of  30  pounds  of  well  ripened 
honey  or  thick  sugar  sirup,  stored  and  mostly  sealed  over  and  about 
the  bees;  since  in  a  long,  shallow  hive  the  heat  is  too  diffused,  combs 
much  longer  than  deep  should  be  on  end  for  the  winter,  to  enable 
the  bees  to  economize  their  natural  warmth;  free  access  of  pure  air, 
but  without  the  creation  of  drafts,  hence  the  entrance  should  be  indi- 
rect or  screened  in  some  manner;  the  ventilation  should  permit  the 
gradual  passing  away  of  the  moisture-laden  air  of  the  hive,  but  not 


FIG.  75. — An  apiary  in  Vermont — winter  view.     (Reproduced  from  photograph.) 

the  escape  of  heat,  hence  6  or  more  inches  (in  the  coldest  portions  of  the 
United  States  10  or  12  inches)  of  dry,  porous  material,  soft  and  warmth- 
retaining,  should  be  on  all  sides  of  the  cluster  and  near  to  it,  the  whole 
being  protected  by  waterproof  walls  from  any  access  of  outside 
moisture.  Care  to  establish  in  all  cases  conditions  similar  to  the  above 
before  bees  cease  flying  in  the  autumn  will  insure  the  apiarist  against 
any  serious  losses  in  wintering  out  of  doors,  even  in  the  severest 
portions  of  our  country. 

In  the  extreme  South,  where  bees  can  fly  out  at  any  time  of  the  year, 
little  extra  precaution  is  needed  for  the  winter  beyond  seeing  that  the 
stores  do  not  become  exhausted  during  a  drought  or  a  protracted  rain, 
when  no  honey  can  be  gathered.  Just  in  proportion  to  the  severity 
and  length  of  the  winter  season  the  above  general  rules  may  be  looked 
upon  as  applicable,  always  bearing  in  mind,  however,  that  in  the 
variable  climate  of  the  middle  section  of  the  country  many  of  the  pre- 


OUTDOOR   AND    INDOOR   WINTERING.  Ill 

cautions  strictly  essential  in  a  colder  climate  may  still  be  profitably 
followed,  although  fair  results  may  be  expected  in  the  main  without 
their  strict  observance. 

INDOOR   WINTERING. 

Dry  cellars  or  special  repositories  are  utilized  in  those  portions  of 
the  country  where  the  cold  of  winter  is  extreme  and  likely  to  be  some- 
what continuous.  Economy  of  food  is  one  of  the  chief  advantages,  but 
two-thirds  as  much,  or  about  20  to  25  pounds  per  hive,  are  needed  to 
bring  a  colony  through  if  conditions  are  favorable.  The  colonies,  pre- 
pared as  regards  bees,  queens,  character  of  stores,  etc.,  the  same  as  for 
outdoor  wintering,  are  carried  into  the  cellar  or  repository  just  before 
the  first  snows  come  or  severe  freezing  occurs.  Caps  are  removed  or 
lifted  up  and  cushions  or  mats  laid  on  the  frames.  Light  is  excluded 
and  all  other  disturbing  influences  in  so  far  as  possible,  the  effort  being 
made  to  keep  the  temperature  at  about  42°  F.  during  the  earlier  part 
of  the  winter.  Later,  especially  after  brood-rearing  may  have  been 
begun,  a  somewhat  higher  degree  is  admissible — 45°  to  46°,  some  even 
allowing  it  to  go  up  to  50°.  No  definite  rule  can  be  given,  however, 
since  much  depends  upon  the  humidity  of  the  air,  etc.  As  long  as  the 
bees  remain  quiet  the  temperature  is  not  too  high  and  is  preferably 
to  be  maintained.  Should  they  become  exceedingly  restless,  and  the 
opportunity  occur  during  a  winter  thaw  to  give  them  a  cleansing  flight, 
it  will  be  advisable  to  return  them  for  a  few  hours  or  a  day  or  two  to 
their  summer  stands,  and  when  they  have  flown  and  quieted  down, 
replace  them  in  the  cellar  or  repository.  In  the  spring  there  should 
not  be  too  great  eagerness  to  get  them  out  of  the  cellar,  provided  they 
are  not  restless.  Their  confinement  indoors  makes  them  somewhat 
^sensitive  to  the  outside  cold,  and  due  caution  should  be  observed,  else 
the  ranks  of  the  workers  will  become  greatly  decimated  before  young 
ones  appear  to  take  their  places. 

The  same  questions  regarding  ventilation  of  hives  indoors  that  puz- 
zle many  in  the  case  of  those  left  on  their  summer  stands  have  been 
discussed  over  and  over.  All  that  is  necessary,  however,  is  to  consider 
the  same  points,  the  question  being  less  complicated,  though,  by  reason 
of  the  greater  uniformity  between  the  temperature  surrounding  the 
cluster  of  bees  and  that  outside  the  hive  when  the  latter  is  in  a  suitable 
winter  repository.  Some  have  reported -success  in  wintering  in  damp 
cellars,  yet  it  is  probable  that  such  success  was  purely  accidental,  or 
rather  occurred  in  spite  of  the  dampness  of  the  repository,  the  other 
conditions  very  likely  having  all  been  favorable,  especially  as  regards 
ventilation  of  the  cellar,  and  the  important  points  of  having  good 
stores  and  an  even  temperature,  which  should  be  several  degrees  higher 
than  is  required  in  a  dry  cellar. ,  Wintering  in  a  damp  repository  is, 
however,  attended  in  general  with  such  risks  that  it  should  by  all  means 
be  avoided,  and  the  bees,  even  in  a  severe  climate,  intrusted  prefera- 
bly to  their  summer  stands,  if  well  prepared  as  regards  their  stores  and 
populousness. 


CHAPTER   XII. 

DISEASES   AND   ENEMIES   OP  BEES. 
DIARRHEA  AND   DYSENTERY. 

In  the  chapter  on  wintering  bees  allusion  has  been  made  to  certain 
conditions  which  bring  about  diarrhea  in  bees.  Not  only  will  soured  or 
fermented  honey  produce  this  disease,  but  thin  honey  also,  by  requir- 
ing too  great  exertion  on  the  part  of  the  bees  to  get  rid  of  the  surplus 
moisture  taken  into  their  bodies,  may  indirectly  cause  the  disease. 
Eepeated  complaints  have  been  made  by  those  located  near  cider  mills 
that  the  apple  juice  collected  by  their  bees  was  the  cause  of  diarrhea 
and  dysentery.  Aphidid  secretions  sometimes  have  the  same  effect. 
Prolonged  arfd  intense  cold  in  the  interior  of  the  hive,  especially  if  the 
stores  are  not  of  the  best  quality,  causes  distention  and  resulting 
weakness  and  soiling  of  the  hive  and  combs.  Dampness  and  chilling 
of  individual  bees  frequently  cause  it.  The  effort  some  make  to  avoid 
the  dampness  often  results  in  the  chilling,  for  the  cover  is  removed,  and 
also  some  portion  of  the  packing  or  the  quilt  or  honey  board  to  let  the  air 
pass  through  to  dry  the  interior.  The  true  remedy  is  a  cleansing  flight 
and  warmth  in  the  hive.  Should  the  weather  not  be  favorable  for  this 
out  of  doors,  the  hive  may  be  brought  into  a  warm  room  and  a  cage  of 
wire  cloth  2  or  3  feet  square  placed  over  the  entrance.  When  thoroughly 
warmed  up  the  bees  will  fly  in  this  and  find  their  way  back  into  the 
hive.  It  is  best  to  leave  them  in  the  warm  room  two  or  three  days, 
lowering  the  temperature  gradually  before  returning  the  hive  to  its 
outside  stand. 

FOUL   BROOD. 

This  disease,  being  highly  contagious,  is  dreaded  most  of  all  by  the 
bee  keeper.  It  is  due  to  the  presence  of  minute  vegetable  organisms 
in  the  body  of  the  bee,  the  larva,  or  the  egg,  which  prey  upon  its  tissues. 
These,  as  Prof.  Frank  Cheshire  has  shown,  are  bacilli,  which,  multiply- 
ing with  marvelous  rapidity  by  division  and  also  by  spores,  are  carried 
from  hive  to  hive,  until  from  a  single  infection  the  whole  apiary  is  soon 
ruined.  The  particular  bacillus  which  is  commonly  known  as  foul  brood 
Professor  Cheshire  has  described  as  Bacillus  alvei,  or  hive  bacillus,  as  it 
affects  not  only  the  brood  but  also  the  adult  bees.  (See  PI.  XI.)  The 
first  symptoms  noticeable  in  the  hive  are  its  lack  of  energy,  then  dead 
Iarva3  turned  black  in  the  cells,  and  finally  sunken  caps,  some  of  them 
perforated  slightly  over  Iarva3  and  pupa3.  All  of  these  symptoms  may, 
112 


Bui.  1,  new  series,  Div.  of  Entomology,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


PLATE  XI, 


.  2  34700, 


BACILLUS  ALVEI  (Cheshire). 

[Drawn  from  nature  by  Frank  R.  Cheshire  for  Jour.  R.  Micr.  Soc.,  and  here  reduced  one- 
sixth  from  the  original  plate.] 

FIG.  1 .  — Residue  of  larva  three  days  dead  of  bacillus  alvei;  6,  bacilli.  Spores  and  degener- 
ated trachae  cover  the  field. 

FIG.  2.— Healthy  juices  of  bee  larva. 

FIG.  3.— Juices  of  larva  (living)  with  disease  in  acute  stage;  a  a,  leptothrix  forms. 

FIG  4.— Brood  cells  from  a  diseased  colony;  a  a,  cells  containing  healthy  pupse;  6  6, 
sunken  and  punctured  cells  in  which  pupae  have  died. 

FIG.  5.  —Cultivation  in  sterilized  agar-agar  showing  the  colony  form  of  bacillus. 

FIG.  6. — Same  cultivation  twenty-four  hours  later. 

FIG.  7.— Spore  changing  into  bacilli. 

FIG.  8.— Bacillus  passing  into  spore  condition. 


FOUL    BROOD THE    WAX    MOTH.  113 

however,  be  present  when  no  foul  brood  exists;  but  if,  upon  opening 
some  of  the  cells  whose  caps  are  sunken  or  slightly  punctured,  a  brown, 
ropy,  putrid  mass  is  found,  which,  when  lifted  on  the  end  of  a  sliver  of 
wood,  glides  back  into  the  cell  or  strings  down  from  the  mass  like  thick 
sirup,  it  is  pretty  certain  that  foul  brood  is  present.  Caution  is  neces- 
sary or  it  may  be  spread  all  through  the  apiary.  The  hands,  as.well  as 
all  tools  used  about  the  infected  colony,  should  be  cleansed  by  washing 
in  a  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate  (one-eighth  ounce  dissolved  in  1 
gallon  water)  before  going  to  another  hive.  If  but  few  are  found  dis- 
eased they  should  be  burned  at  once— at  night,  when  all  the  bees  are  at 
home.  If  all  or  nearly  all  are  affected,  or  if  the  disease  does  not  seem 
virulent  and  other  apiaries  in  the  neighborhood  are  not  endangered 
thereby,  a  cure  may  be  attempted.  Removal  of  all  of  the  combs  and 
confinement  of  the  bees  in  an  empty  box,  obliging  them  to  frst  until 
some  drop  from  hunger,  followed  after  releasing  them  by  liberal  feed- 
ing, will  frequently  effect  a  cure,  as  indicated  many  years  since  by 
Mr.  M.  Quinby.  The  hives  may  be  disinfected  by  washing  in  carbolic- 
acid  water  and  used  again.  A  second  removal  of  the  bees  and  fasting 
may  be  necessary  in  some  cases.  It  will  also  be  well  to  feed  medicated 
sirup — 1  part  of  carbolic  acid,  or  phenol,  to  GOO  or  700  parts  of  sirup. 
Many  omit  the  fasting,  but  destroy  all  combs  and  frames  and  supply 
comb-foundation  starters,  removing  four  days  later  all  combs  built  and 
giving  a  second  lot  of  starters.  It  is  well  to  supplement  this  treat- 
ment with  feeding  of  medicated  sirup.  Phenol  having  been  suggested 
to  Professor  Cheshire  as  a  remedy,  he  experimented  until  he  found 
that  if  a  sirup  containing  1  part  of  phenol  to  400  or  500  parts  of  the 
food  be  poured  in  the  cells  adjacent  to  the  brood,  and  the  diseased 
brood,  after  brushing  off'  the  bees,  sprayed  with  a  solution  of  1  phenol 
to  50  water,  a  cure  was  speedily  effected.  The  great  risk  of  spreading 
the  disease,  as  well  as  the  time  and  expense  which  a  cure  by  drugs  or 
by  the  fasting  process  involves,  will  cause  immediate  destruction  to  be 
resorted  to  as  the  cheapest  in  the  end  if  taken  in  time. 

Bacillus  gaytoni,  also  described  by  Professor  Cheshire,  is  character- 
ized by  loss  of  hairy  covering  on  the  part  of  the  workers  and  their 
crawling  out  of  the  hives  over  the  ground,  constantly  wriggling  their 
bodies  until  death  occurs.  It  yields,  according  to  Professor  Cheshire, 
to  the  same  remedies  as  Bacillus  alvei,  but  having  been  less  destructive 
and  being  far  more  likely  to  disappear  without  effort  to  cure  it,  less 
attention  has  been  given  to  it.  Lately,  however,  it  has  been  alarmingly 
destructive  in  some  of  the  extensive  apiaries  of  California,  Colorado, 
and  Texas,  so  that  some  simple  remedy  would  be  very  welcome. 

THE   WAX   OR   BEE   MOTH. 

The  larva  of  a  moth  known  to  entomologists  as  Galleria  mellonella 
Linn,  gnaws  passages  through  the  combs  of  the  bees,  especially  those  in 
or  near  the  brood  nest,  often  proving  very  destructive  in  weak  or  neg- 


114  MANUAL    OF    APICULTURE. 

lected  colonies.  The  popular  name,  wax  moth,  was  doubtless  given  on 
the  supposition  that  the  food  of  the  larva  was  chiefly  wax;  but  when  an 
attempt  to  rear  them  on  this  substance  in  its  usual  commercial  purity 
is  made  slight  development  only  results.  Probably  chemically  pure  wax 
would  not  be  touched  by  the  larva;  but  in  combs  containing  the  larval 
skins  left  by  developing  bees,  or  containing  brood  or  pollen,  they  reach 
their  highest  development  if  left  undisturbed  during  warm  weather, 
finding  ample  nourishment  in  the  nitrogen-containing  pollen  and  animal 
tissues  left  by  the  molting  larvaB.  To  protect  themselves  from  the  bees 
they  line  their  galleries  through  the  combs  with  a  strong  web  of  silk 
and  are  able  to  retreat  or  advance  rapidly  through  them  when  attacked. 
The  observing  bee  keeper  will  occasionally  notice  the  moths  resting 
during  the  daytime  on  the  corners  of  the  hives  or  under  the  roof  pro- 
jections or  edges  of  the  bottom  boards.  Its  color  is  dull  or  ashy  gray, 
with  light  and  dark  streaks,  making  it  so  nearly  like  a  protruding  sliver 
of  a  weather  beaten  board  as  to  protect  it  materially  from  its  enemies 
when  resting  on  any  unpainted  surface  that  has  been  long  exposed.  At 
nightfall  the  moths  may  be  seen  flitting  about  the  hive  entrances,  seek- 
ing an  opportunity  to  enter  and  deposit  their  eggs.  If  prevented  by 
the  bees,  which  are  then  instinctively  on  the  alert,  they  deposit  in  the 
crevices  between  the  hive  and  stand  or  between  the  hive  and  cap.  The 
minute  larvae  as  they  emerge  soon  make  their  way  into  the  interior  of 
the  hive.  It  is  possible  also  that  some  of  the  eggs  of  the  moth  may  be 
left  where  the  bees  crawling  over  them  carry  them  into  the  hive  by 
accident,  the  freshly  laid  egg  adhering  readily  to  any  substance  it 
touches.  In  the  northern  and  middle  sections  of  the  United  States 
two  broods  are  reared,  the  first  appearing  in  May,  the  second  and  larger 
brood  in  midsummer  or  even  August.  The  eggs  deposited  by  the  last 
brood  develop  slowly  in  the  cooler  autumn  weather,  but  usually  reach 
the  pupal  stage,  in  which  they  normally  pass  the  winter.  Individual 
moths  may,  however,  be  seen  about  the  apiary  during  June  and  July, 
and  even  into  the  autumn,  so  that  egg  deposition  is  constantly  going 
on,  and  any  combs  removed  from  the  hive  and  left  unprotected  by  bees, 
especially  if  in  a  warm  apartment  or  a  closed  box,  will  soon  be  in  com- 
plete possession  of  the  destructive  Iarva3,  which  wax  fat  and  soon  reduce 
them  to  a  mass  of  webs.  The  only  remedies  are  to  keep  the  combs 
under  the  constant  protection  of  the  bees,  or,  if  the  colonies  are  not 
populous  enough  to  cover  them  fairly,  the  combs  should  be  hung  so  as 
to  leave  a  space  between  them  in  a  cupboard  or  large  box  which  can 
be  closed  tightly,  so  as  to  subject  them  for  some  time  to  the  Aimes  gen- 
erated by  throwing  a  handful  or  two  of  sulphur  on  live  coals,  or  to  the 
odors  of  bisulphide  of  carbon  in  an  open  vial.  Caution  is  needed  in  the 
use  of  the  latter,  since  it  is  highly  inflammable. 

Oriental  races  of  bees  are  more  energetic  than  others  in  clearing 
out  wax-moth  larvaB,  and  Carniolans  and  Italians  more  so  than  the 
common  bees.  But  in  colonies  always  supplied  with  good  queens 


THE    BEE    LOUSE MINOR    INSECT    ENEMIES.  115 

the  wax-moth  larva?  make  little  headway,  and  it  is  therefore  only  the 
neglected  hives  that  are  seriously  troubled.  Moth-trap  attachments 
or  moth-proof  hives  are  therefore  of  no  use,  unless,  in  the  case  of  the 
former,  larvae  seeking  a  secure  place  in  which  to  pupate  may  be  caught; 
but  that  implies  frequent  examination,  and  the  same  or  less  attention 
to  the  colony  itself  will  suffice  to  do  away  with  almost  any  breeding  of 
moths.  Hives  proof  against  the  entrance  of  wax-moth  larva?  would, 
as  the  statements  here  made  regarding  the  breeding  habits  of  the 
moth  indicate,  exclude  the  bees  also.  From  the  foregoing  it  can  be 
readily  seen  that  the  attentive  apiarist  no  longer  regards  the  wax  moth 
as  a  serious  pest. 

BRAULA   OR    "BEE   LOUSE." 

A  wingless  dipteron,  Braula  cceca  Nitsch,  known  under  the  common 
name  of  ubee  louse,7'  is  a  troublesome  parasite  on  bees  in  Mediterranean 
countries,  the  adults,  which  are  very  large  in  proportion  to  the  host, 
gathering-  on  the  thoraces  of  the  workers,  rarely  of  the  drones,  but  in 
great  numbers  on  the  queens.  The  writer  has  removed  seventy-five  at 
one  time  from  a  queen,  though  ordinarily  the  numbers  do  not  exceed  a 
dozen.  When  numerous  they  render  the  queen  weak  by  the  removal 
of  vital  fluids.  The  insect  has  frequently  been  imported  to  this  country 
on  queens  with  attendant  bees,  but  thus  far  has  probably  gained  no 
foothold.  Likely  it  will  never  do  so  in  the  North,  but  the  case  might 
be  different  in  any  region  resembling  southern  Europe  in  climate,  and 
it  is  by  all  means  advisable  to  remove  every  one  from  any  queen  or 
worker  arriving  here  infested  with  them. 

OTHER   ENEMIES. 

Robber  flies,  dragon  flies,  etc. — Several  species  of  Asilus  and  related 
predaceous  Diptera  do  not  live  upon  injurious  insects  alone,  but  also 
capture  and  devour  honey  bees.  They  are  more  destructive  in  the 
South  than  elsewhere.  The  same  is  true  of  the  neuropterous  insects 
known  as  mosquito  hawks,  dragon  flies,  or  devil's  darning  needles. 
There  seems  to  be  no  remedy  for  any  of  these  except  that  of  frighten- 
ing them  away  when  noticed  about  the  apiary.  The  "  stinging  bugs," 
belonging  in  the  heinipterous  family  Phymatida?,  often  capture  and 
destroy  workers  as  they  visit  the  flowers.  No  remedy  is  practicable. 

Ants  and  tcasps.—Soine  of  the  larger  ants  and  social  wasps  are  very 
troublesome  to  the  apiarist  in  tropical  and  even  in  subtropical  regions. 
They  seize  the  workers  and  cut  them  in  pieces  with  their  powerful  jaws. 
Having  once  reduced  the  hive  defenders,  they  even  make  bold  to  enter 
and  carry  off  the  queen  as  well  as  help  themselves  to  honey.  Trapping 
them  with  honey  or  with  meat  and  killing  them,  as  well  as  destroying 
the  nests  when  found,  are  the  only  remedies.  The  paper  nests  are 
easily  burned  away,  while  an  effectual  remedy  against  ants  is  to  open 
the  hill  and  pour  in  an  ounce  or  two  of  bisulphide  of  carbon. 


116  MANUAL    OF    APICULTURE. 

Spiders. — Webs  made  about  hive  entrances  often  capture  bees  as 
well  as  wax  moths,  and,  notwithstanding  this  last-mentioned  point  in 
their  favor,  they  had  better  be  removed. 

Toads  and  lizards. — These  devour  many  bees,  and  whenever  found 
near  the  hives  should  be  destroyed  or  removed  to  the  vegetable  garden. 

Birds. — Swallows  and  kingbirds  have  been  accused  of  eating  many 
bees.  It  is  probable  that  the  destruction  of  injurious  insects  by  them 
more  than  makes  amends  for  the  bees  taken.  This  was  clearly  proven, 
in  the  case  of  the  kingbird,  stomachs  of  which,  examined  at  the  United 
States  Department  of  Agriculture,  showed  only  a  very  small  percentage 
of  honey  bees,  and  these  mostly  drones. 

MAMMALS. 

Mice  gaining  access  to  the  hive  during  winter  gnaw  out  among  the 
combs  a  nest  cavity  and  eat  honey,  pollen,  and  bees.  Low  entrances, 
covered,  if  found  necessary,  with  a  strip  of  tin,  will  prevent  the  mice 
from  gnawing  larger  holes,  yet  permit  the  bees  to  pass  in  and  out. 
Skunks  sometimes  disturb  hive  entrances  and  catch  bees  as  they  come 
out.  This  is  particularly  vexatious  in  the  winter,  when  colonies  should 
be  left  quiet.  In  mountain  localities,  bears,  led  by  their  fondness  for 
honey,  still  occasionally  overturn  beehives.  The  remedies  for  both  of 
these  are,  of  course,  shooting  or  trapping. 

ROBBER  BEES. 

When  forage  is  scarce  in  the  field,  bees  belonging  to  different  colonies 
often  wage  fierce  wars  over  the  stores  already  in  hives.  Thousands  are 
killed  and  the  victors  relentlessly  carry  off  as  booty  every  drop  of  honey 
from  the  vanquished  hive,  leaving  its  bees  to  starve  miserably.  A  great 
stir  and  loud  buzzing  in  the  hive  of  the  conquers  attests  their  rejoicing 
over  the  ill-gotten  gains.  Nor  have  they  any  code  of  morals  which 
inclines  them  to  select  as  opponents  forces  equal  in  strength  to  their  own. 
With  them  "  all's  fair  in  war."  Their  only  object  is  plunder,  and  they 
therefore  select  the  most  defenseless,  a  colony  disorganized  through  loss 
of  its  queen  being  an  especial  mark  for  a  combined  attack. 

Extreme  caution  to  prevent  robbing  is  always  advisable.  A  little 
carelessness  or  neglect  in  the  apiary  early  in  the  spring  or  toward  the 
latter  part  of  the  season  may  result  in  much  loss.  It  is  easier  to  prevent 
robbing  than  to  check  it  at  once  or  without  loss  after  it  is  well  under 
way.  Leaving  honey  exposed  about  the  apiary  often  induces  robbers  to 
begin  their  work;  hence  extracting  and  similar  work  must  be  done  in 
bee-proofrooms  whenever  the  bees  are  not  gathering  honey  freely.  It 
may  at  such  times  be  necessary  to  do  all  manipulating  early  in  the 
morning,  before  many  of  the  bees  have  begun  to  fly,  or  later  in  the  day, 
after  they  have  ceased,  or  even  under  a  tent  made  of  mosquito  netting 
and  placed  temporarily  over  the  hive  to  be  manipulated.  Queenless 
and  weak  colonies  should  be  put  in  order  if  possible  before  the  honey 


ROBBER    BEES LAYING   WORKERS.  117 

flow  ceases.  In  any  event  the  entrances  of  such  hives  should  be  con- 
tracted until  but  few  or  even  no  more  than  one  bee  can  gain  access  to 
the  interior  at  one  time.  Professor  Cheshire  has  devised  an  excellent 
entrance  block  to  prevent  or  check  robbing.  This  is  shown  in  fig.  7G, 
and  is  so  simple  that  anyone  can  make  it.  When  contracted  and  placed 
at  the  hive  entrance  it  will  be  seen  that  the  robbers  must  make  their 
way  through  a  narrow  and  bent  passage,  something  they  are  loath  to 
attempt,  especially  if  at  the  first  onset  they  find  the  passage  well 
guarded. 

If  robbing  has  begun  it  may  sometimes  be  stopped  by  throwing 
coarse  grass  or  weeds  over  the  entrance  of  the  hive  attacked,  or  by 
leaning  a  pane  of  glass  against  its  front,  the  entrance  being,  of  course, 
contracted  as  indicated  above.  These  plans  tend  to  confuse  the  rob- 
bers for  a  time,  and  meanwhile  the  rightful  occupants  of  the  hive  may 
be  able  to  organize  for  defense.  If  convenient  the  colony  attacked 
may  be  moved  a  distance  of  a  half  mile  or  more  and  placed  as  far  as  pos- 
sible from  other  apiaries  until  it  can  recuperate.  Another  plan  in 
extreme  cases  is  to  put  the  colony  in  a  dark  cellar  for  a  few  days,  con- 
fining the  bees  to  the  hive  with  wire  cloth,  so  as  to  allow  plenty  of 
ventilation,  as  described  under  the  head  of  " Moving  bees."  When 
brought  out  of  the  cellar  it  is  well 
to  place  the  colony  on  a  new  stand, 
apart  from  the  other  bees,  contract 
the  entrance,  and  lean  a  board  against 

the  front  Of  the  hive.  It  iS  alSO  Safest  FIG.TG.— Cheshire  anti-robbing  entrance:  st, 
tO  bring  it  OUt  late  in  the  day,  even  stationary  piece ;  *,slide;  p.pin  orstop.  (Re- 

just  at  dusk,  so  the  bees  will  begin 

flying  from  it  gradually  and  not  attract  the  attention  of  robbers.  It 
may  be  well,  when  removing  a  colony  from  its  stand  to  save  it  from  rob- 
bers, to  put  in  its  place  a  hive  with  combs  containing  a  little  honey  and 
pollen.  The  robbers,  instead  of  scattering  and  entering  adjacent  hives, 
will  continue  to  visit  the  same  stand,  their  numbers  gradually  dimin- 
ishing as  the  honey  gives  out  and  the  pollen  is  sucked  dry.  If  mean- 
while the  entrances  of  adjoining  hives  have  been  contracted  and  these 
colonies  are  fairly  strong  and  in  normal  condition,  individual  robbers 
will  be  successively  repulsed  as  they  appear.  Quiet  will  thus  be  even- 
tually restored. 

LAYING  WORKERS. 

Although  laying  workers  are  not  strictly  enemies  of  their  kind,  their 
work  hastens  the  extinction  of  the  colony  to  which  they  belong,  in  case 
the  latter  has  become  queenless  and  is  without  the  means  of  rearing 
another  queen.  They  cause  the  expenditure  of  the  stores  and  strength 
of  the  colonies  in  a  vain  though  well-meant  endeavor  to  perpetuate 
their  species;  the  eggs  which  laying  workers  deposit,  and  for  whose 
development  through  the  larval  stage  much  honey  and  pollen  are 


118  MANUAL    OF    APICULTURE. 

required,  oiily  resulting  in  the  production,  of  a  lot  of  drones,  for  the 
most  part  weak  and  dwarfed. 

If  not  discovered  until  the  hive  is  nearly  depopulated,  the  remaining 
old  bees  should  be  brushed  oil',  and  the  combs,  after  the  sealed  drone 
brood  has  been  uncapped  and  jarred  out,  may  be  distributed  among 
other  colonies.  Should  the  affected  colony  still  be  worth  saving,  combs 
containing  emerging  bees  should  be  added  and  a  queen  introduced  a 
few  days  later,  or  a  queen  cell  inserted,  as  soon  as  the  added  brood  has 
stocked  the  hive  well  with  young  bees. 


BOOKS    AND    JOURNALS    RELATING   TO    APICULTURE. 

The  following  are  among  the  leading  books  and  journals  relating  to 
apiculture : 


Langstroth  on  the  Honey  Bee.     Revised  edition,  1889.     By  Chas.  Dadant  &.  Son. 
Quinby's  New  Bee  Keeping;  or  The  Mysteries  of  Bee   Keeping  Explained.     1884. 

By  L.  C.  Root. 
The  A  B  C  of  Bee  Culture :  A  Cyclopaedia  of  Everything  Pertaining  to  the  Care  of 

the  Honey  Bee.     By  A.  I.  Root. 

Advanced  Bee  Culture:  Its  Methods  and  Management.     1891.     By  W.  Z.  Hutch  insoii. 
Bees  and  Bee  Keeping,  Scientific  and  Practical.     By  Frank  R.  Cheshire.     In  two 

volumes:  Vol.  I  (scientific),  Yol.  II  (practical).     Published  in  London,  England. 
The  Bee  Keeper's  Guide;  or  Manual  of  the  Apiary.     By  A.  .).  Cook. 
A  Modern  Bee  Farm  and  its  Economic  Management.     By  S.  Simmins.     Published  in 

London,  England. 
The  Blessed  Bees.     By  John  Allen. 
Bee  Keeping  for  Profit.     By  Dr.  G.  L.  Tinker. 

JOURNALS. 

The  American  Bee  Journal.     Weekly.     Chicago,  111. 
Gleanings  in  Bee  Culture.     Semimonthly.     Medina,  Ohio. 
The  I5ee  Keepers' Review.     Monthly.     Flint,  Mich. 
The  American  Bee  Keeper.     Monthly.     Falconer,  N.  Y. 
The  Progressive  Bee  Keeper.     Monthly.     Higginsville,  Mo. 
The  Southland  Queen.     Monthly.     Beeville,  Texas. 
The  Western  Bee  Keeper.     Monthly.     Denver,  Colo. 


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